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Transit Oriented Development and its effectsExploring relationships between TOD, accessibility and labour productivity in Beijing, ChinaLyu, G.
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BY GUOWEI LYU
Transit Oriented Development
Explor ing re lat ionships between TOD, access ib i l i ty, and labour product iv i ty in Bei j ing, China
TOD
AN
D ITS EFFECTS
GU
OW
EI LYU
Transit O
riented D
evelop
ment an
d its effects B
y Gu
ow
ei Lyu
Transit Oriented Development and its effects
Exploring relationships between TOD, accessibility and labour
productivity in Beijing, China
ACADEMISCH PROEFSCHRIFT
ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor
aan de Universiteit van Amsterdam
op gezag van de Rector Magnificus
prof. dr. ir. K.I.J. Maex
ten overstaan van een door het College voor Promoties
ingestelde commissie,
in het openbaar te verdedigen in de Agnietenkapel
op maandag 17 juni 2019, te 14.00 uur
door
Guowei Lyu
geboren te Chongqing
Promotiecommissie:
Promotores:
Prof. dr. ir. L. Bertolini Universiteit van Amsterdam
Prof. dr. K. Pfeffer Universiteit Twente
Overige leden:
Prof. dr. S. Musterd Universiteit van Amsterdam
Prof. dr. R.C. Kloosterman Universiteit van Amsterdam
Dr. M.C.G. te Brömmelstroet Universiteit van Amsterdam
Prof. dr. ir. M.F.A.M. van Maarseveen Universiteit Twente
Dr. W.W.Y.G.Z. Tan Institutt for byggfag, Norway
Faculteit: Faculteit der Maatschappij- en Gedragswetenschappen
This research has benefited from the financial support of the China
Scholarship Council (CSC NO: 201406040059).
ISBN/EAN: 978-94-028-1527-6
Colofon
© 2019 Guowei Lyu
Cover design:Guowei Lyu
I
Table of Contents Word of thanks ................................................................................................................ i
Summary .......................................................................................................................... I
Samenvatting ................................................................................................................. III
Chapter 1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Motivation ..................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Identifying and debating the potential effects of TOD .................................. 2
1.2.1 Identifying the potential effects of TOD .................................................... 2
1.2.2 Debating the potential effects of TOD ...................................................... 2
1.3 TOD studies in China ...................................................................................... 4
1.3.1 Why study TOD in China ............................................................................ 4
1.3.2 Previous TOD studies in the Chinese context ............................................ 5
1.4 Knowledge gaps and research questions ...................................................... 7
1.5 Introduction of the selected case city: Beijing .............................................. 9
1.6 Outline of the thesis .................................................................................... 11
References of Chapter 1 ........................................................................................... 14
Appendix of Chapter 1 .............................................................................................. 20
Chapter 2 Developing a TOD typology for Beijing metro station areas ........................ 27
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 27
2.2 Theoretical background ............................................................................... 29
2.2.1 The node-place model ............................................................................. 30
2.2.2 Additional dimension ‘oriented’ and the extended node-place model .. 31
2.3 Methodology ............................................................................................... 32
2.3.1 TOD indicators and their selection .......................................................... 33
2.3.2 TOD areas and description of data set for classification ......................... 36
2.3.3 Producing clusters of metro station areas .............................................. 40
II
2.4 Results and discussion ................................................................................. 43
2.4.1 Six types of metro station areas .............................................................. 43
2.4.2 Some potential uses of the TOD typology ............................................... 46
2.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................... 46
References of Chapter 2 ........................................................................................... 49
Appendix of Chapter 2 .............................................................................................. 53
Chapter 3 How does Transit Oriented Development contribute to station area
accessibility? A study in Beijing ..................................................................................... 60
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 60
3.2 Theoretical background ............................................................................... 63
3.3 Measuring accessibility and TOD components of station areas .................. 63
3.3.1 Measuring accessibility of station areas ...................................................... 63
3.3.2 Identifying and measuring specific TOD components related to
accessibility .......................................................................................................... 68
3.4 Relating the specific components of TOD to station area accessibility ....... 71
3.5 Potential policy implications........................................................................ 75
3.6 Conclusion and discussion ........................................................................... 76
References of Chapter 3 ........................................................................................... 79
Chapter 4 Is labour productivity higher in transit oriented development areas? A study
of Beijing ....................................................................................................................... 83
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 83
4.2 Theoretical background ............................................................................... 84
4.3 The context of Beijing .................................................................................. 85
4.4 Methodology ............................................................................................... 86
4.4.1 Measuring labour productivity of areas .................................................. 86
4.4.2 ‘Hot-’ and ‘cold’ spot analysis of labour productivities of areas (grid cells)
89
III
4.4.3 Identifying three types of urban areas and assessing TOD characteristics
91
4.4.4 Relating TOD to labour productivity ....................................................... 96
4.5 Conclusion and discussion ......................................................................... 100
References of Chapter 4 ......................................................................................... 103
Chapter 5 Conclusion and Discussion ......................................................................... 107
5.1 Findings and contributions ........................................................................ 107
5.2 Limitations of the study ............................................................................. 110
5.3 Potential future research directions .......................................................... 111
References of Chapter 5 ......................................................................................... 113
i
Word of thanks
Thank God for guiding me to pursue a doctoral study and research in Amsterdam.
Thank my promoters Prof. Luca Bertolini and Prof. Karin Pfeffer for guiding me,
supervising me, helping me go through and conquer so many difficulties in my PhD
trajectory.
Thank my family, my wife Qi Zhao, my daughter Zhaoxin Lyu, my parents Fanghong
Lyu and Falian Wen, my parents in law Shanling Zhao and Li Li. They give me financial
and spiritual supports. Without their supports, I even cannot finish this wonderful PhD
trajectory. In particular, I thank my wife Qi Zhao, I got to know her in the second year
of my PhD, and we got married in the third year, had the first born Zhaoxin in the
fourth year. That is a really big change happened in my PhD life. Her support and hope
(that I become a scholar and do what I am interested in) never change. I thank her
support.
I thank China Scholarship Council, University of Amsterdam, and Dutch Government.
This PhD research is benefited from their financial supports. I thank my supervisors in
my Master and Bachelor, Prof. Wenxin Zhang, and Prof. Shangyi Zhou at Beijing
Normal University. They recommended me to apply the scholarship from China
Scholarship Council. They are my first teachers in my research trajectory. Thank
University of Amsterdam, I love this university and the Netherlands. I will recommend
my kids to study and pursue their lives in this country. I really enjoyed the life in the
Netherlands. Indeed, China, from my view, needs to learn from the Netherlands on
many aspects (e.g., education, research environment and their supporting strategies).
I am grateful to be in the Netherlands for four years in my young age.
I thank my PhD committee members and the Dean of the faculty.
I thank many persons who offered their kind helps to me in my PhD life. They are: Dr.
Xu Hou, who introduced Luca and the Netherlands to me; Dr. Yang Song, who offered
her help when I, as a person who first go abroad, just arrived in the Netherlands;
Puikang Chan, my project manager, who gave a lot of helps in my PhD trajectory; Joan
Schrijvers, who offered her kind help to me in finding proper housing in Amsterdam;
ii
Barbara, Lawa, who offered her administration help in my PhD trajectory; Dr. Ori
Rubin, who helped to check my PhD thesis several times, and offered his professional
review at the initial stage of my thesis; Arend Jonkman, who helped me edit the Dutch
summary of the thesis and other help in my PhD trajectory; Nikola Stalevski, the
language editor for my PhD thesis, thank him for his work; and the colleagues, e.g.,
Andrew Switzer, Federico Savini (offer me the first drinking toast in Amsterdam),
Beatriz Pineda Revilla, Edda Bild, Ching Wen Yang, Aslan Zorlu (helped to check the
chapter of labour productivity), Sara Ö zogul, Jing Zhou, Qiong He, Ramesh Pokharel,
George Liu, Samuel Nello Deakin and other colleagues.
I also thank some friends in the Netherlands, e.g., Beibei Weng, as well as her family,
Si Wen, Yuan Gao, Xingliang Qi, and the friends in China, e.g., Dr. Yingchun Huang, Dr.
Dong Yadong, etc.
I
Summary
Many cities all over the world are facing similar problems, such as road congestion, air
pollution, urban sprawl, and increasing scarcity of available urban land. Transit
Oriented Development (TOD) is widely recognised as an urban planning strategy that
can address these problems (Cervero et al., 2004; Curtis et al., 2009; Handy, 2002;
Renne, 2009). TOD is often advocated as a generic, ubiquitously applicable concept
that integrates urban transport and land use systems, by combining a high level of
public transport connection with high-density, mixed-use, cycling- and pedestrian-
friendly developments, centred around a transit station (Calthorpe, 1993). There is
already a significant body of knowledge on the concept and principles of TOD as well
as the perceived effects to date (e.g., Bertolini et al., 2012; Cervero et al., 2004;
Chorus and Bertolini, 2016; Curtis et al., 2009; Joshi et al., 2017; Knowles, 2012; Loo et
al., 2010; Mu and De Jong, 2016; Pojani and Stead, 2014; Yang and Lew, 2009; Zhang
and Liu, 2007). However, the specificities of the Chinese context (e.g., the scale and
pace of the urbanisation and motorisation process as well as the institutional
arrangements around land development and transport provision) demand a more
context-specific elaboration of TOD and what it can and does achieve. This thesis
evaluated and applied theories, concepts, and methods from urban planning,
geography, transport studies, and spatial economics to analyse the case of TOD in
Beijing, China. It evaluated the TOD characteristics of metro station areas in Beijing
and developed a TOD typology for those areas. Furthermore, the thesis explored the
relationship between TOD and the effects that TOD actually delivered. The effects
analysed in this thesis included the accessibility to jobs and inhabitants in an area (as a
primary/direct TOD effect), and the labour productivity of an area (as an example of a
secondary/indirect TOD effect). The thesis provides insights for urban planning and
policy in the Chinese context and elaborates a series of methodologies useful for
potential future application in other contexts.
Chapter 1 reviewed the international and Chinese TOD literature, identified
knowledge gaps and research questions, and outlined the components of the thesis.
The following chapters (Chapter 2, Chapter 3, and Chapter 4) filled in the identified
knowledge gaps and provided actionable insights that can feed into urban planning
practices in the Chinese context as well as methodologies that can also be applied in
other contexts.
II
Chapter 2 developed a context-based TOD typology for metro station areas in a
city (Beijing). The author extended the node-place model, first developed by Bertolini
(1996, 1999), to a model that charts ‘Transit’ (node), ‘Oriented’ (association between
node and place) and ‘Development’ (place) characteristics of metro station areas.
Chapter 2 provided a systematic and context-specific methodology for developing a
TOD typology of metro station areas for a city, with potential for application in other
geographic contexts.
Chapter 3 studied how specific components of TOD (e.g., transport components,
such as the position of the station in the city and the transit network, the frequency of
transit service, and land use components, such as densification and diversification of
uses or pedestrian-friendly urban design) are related to accessibility and the relative
importance of each component for enhancing accessibility. The results of Chapter 3
highlighted that a station area’s location relative to the city centre and the specific
land use patterns around all the stations within the targeted station’s one-hour travel
catchment were relatively more important than increasing the targeted station’s
transit performance. The outcomes of Chapter 3 provided insights for developing
area-specific and targeted strategies to enhance a station area’s accessibility
regarding jobs and inhabitants in the context of Beijing.
Chapter 4 assessed the values and the clustering of labour productivities in
different area types across different types of industries and explored the relationships
between specific TOD characteristics and the clustering of labour productivities in
certain industry sectors. It found that within the majority of industry sectors, the
distribution of labour productivity had no significant association with TOD. However,
the results suggested that within certain tertiary industry sectors (i.e., wholesale and
retail; accommodation and catering; and culture, sports, and entertainment) labour
productivity was significantly higher in a more transit oriented developed area. The
chapter further identified which specific TOD components were related to the
clustering of labour productivities in certain industry sectors and the extent of the
effect. For example, it found that the densification and diversification of land uses
around a station area or along the transit network are relatively more important than
improving the transport connection of an area. The outcomes of Chapter 4 provided
insights for developing targeted strategies to foster the clustering of labour
productivities in certain industries of a given station area in Beijing.
Finally, Chapter 5 closes the thesis by summarising findings and contributions,
reflecting on the limits of the study, and discussing potential directions for future
research efforts.
III
Samenvatting
Transit Oriented Development (TOD) integreert systemen voor stedelijk vervoer
en landgebruik, door middel van het combineren van relatief hoogwaardige
transportverbindingen, een hoge dichtheid, multifunctionaliteit en fietsers- en
voetgangersvriendelijke ontwikkeling rond een openbaarvervoersknooppunt
(Bertolini and Spit, 1998; Cervero, 1998; Cervero et al., 2004; Curtis et al., 2009). Het is
een gangbare strategie om stedelijke wildgroei te beteugelen, de kwaliteit van een
plek te verbeteren en verschillende (stedelijke) problemen aan te pakken, zoals
toenemende schaarste aan beschikbare binnenstedelijke ontwikkellocaties,
vervoerscongestie, opwarming van de aarde en luchtvervuiling. Er is al een
aanzienlijke hoeveelheid wetenschappelijke kennis beschikbaar over wat TOD inhoud
en wat hiervan de (potentiële) praktische voordelen zijn. Echter, de specifieke
kenmerken van de Chinese context (bijv. de omvang en snelheid van de
verstedelijking en motorisering, de institutionele regelingen over landgebruik en de
openbaarvervoersdiensten) vragen om een context-specifiek onderzoek naar de
potentie en gerealiseerde uitkomsten van TOD. In dit proefschrift is TOD daarom
onderzocht binnen de specifieke Chinese context, met hoofdstad Peking als casus.
Hierbij is gebruik gemaakt van theorieën, concepten en methoden uit de planologie,
geografie, transportonderzoek en ruimtelijke economie. Voor verschillende
metrostationsgebieden in Peking is onderzocht in hoeverre deze voldoen aan
verschillende eigenschappen van TOD en is vervolgens een TOD-typologie ontwikkeld
voor deze gebieden. Vervolgens is in het proefschrift de relatie tussen TOD en de
voordelen van TOD bestudeerd. Ten eerste is het effect op de verbeterde
bereikbaarheid van werk en bewoners verkend (als het primaire, directe voordeel van
TOD). Ten tweede is de relatief hogere arbeidsproductiviteit van een gebied
onderzocht (als een voorbeeld van een secundair, indirect voordeel van TOD). Het
proefschrift biedt inzichten die de stadsplanning in de Chinese context kunnen
voeden. Daarnaast is in het proefschrift een reeks methodologieën ontwikkeld die in
de toekomst ook in andere geografische contexten kunnen worden toegepast.