Download - US-China Education Review 2013(3B)
-
8/12/2019 US-China Education Review 2013 3B
1/70
-
8/12/2019 US-China Education Review 2013 3B
2/70
-
8/12/2019 US-China Education Review 2013 3B
3/70
Publication Information:US-China Education Review B(Earlier title: Journal of US-China Education Review, ISSN 1548-6613) is published monthly inhard copy (ISSN 2161-6248) by David Publishing Company located at 9460 Telstar Ave Suite 5, EL Monte, CA 91731, USA.
Aims and Scope:US-China Education Review B, a monthly professional academic journal, covers all sorts of education-theory researches on Higher
Education, Higher Educational Management, Educational Psychology, Teacher Education, Curriculum and Teaching, EducationalTechnology, Educational Economics and Management, Educational Theory and Principle, Educational Policy and Administration,Educational Sociology, Educational Methodology, Comparative Education, Vocational and Technical Education, Special Education,Educational Philosophy, Elementary Education, Science Education, Lifelong Learning, Adult Education, Distance Education,Preschool Education, Primary Education, Secondary Education, Art Education, Rural Education, Environmental Education, HealthEducation, History of Education, Education and Culture, Education Law, Educational Evaluation and Assessment, PhysicalEducation, Educational Consulting, Educational Training, Moral Education, Family Education, as well as other issues.
Editorial Board Members:
Professor Alexandro Escudero Professor Cameron Scott White Professor Diane SchwartzProfessor Ghazi M. Ghaith Professor Gil-Garcia, Ana Professor Gordana Jovanovic DolecekProfessor Gner Tural Professor Lihshing Leigh Wang Professor Mercedes Ruiz LozanoProfessor Michael Eskay Professor Peter Hills
Manuscripts and correspondence are invited for publication. You can submit your papers via Web submission, or E-mail to
[email protected] or [email protected]. Submission guidelines and Web submission system are availableat http://www.davidpublishing.org or http://www.davidpublishing.com.
Editorial Office:
9460 Telstar Ave Suite 5, EL Monte, CA 91731, USATel: 1-323-984-7526, 323-410-1082Fax: 1-323-984-7374, 323-908-0457E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]
Copyright2013 by David Publishing Company and individual contributors. All rights reserved. David Publishing Company holdsthe exclusive copyright of all the contents of this journal. In accordance with the international convention, no part of this journalmay be reproduced or transmitted by any media or publishing organs (including various Websites) without the written permissionof the copyright holder. Otherwise, any conduct would be considered as the violation of the copyright. The contents of this journalare available for any citation. However, all the citations should be clearly indicated with the title of this journal, serial number andthe name of the author.
Abstracted/Indexed in:
Database of EBSCO, Massachusetts, USAChinese Database of CEPS, Airiti Inc. & OCLCChinese Scientific Journals Database, VIP Corporation, Chongqing, P.R.C.Ulrichs Periodicals DirectoryASSIA Database and LLBA Database of ProQuestExcellent papers in ERIC
Norwegian Social Science Data Service (NSD), NorwayUniverse Digital Library Sdn Bhd (UDLSB), MalaysiaSummon Serials Solutions
Subscription Information:
Price(per year):Print $600 Online $480Print and Online $800
David Publishing Company9460 Telstar Ave Suite 5, EL Monte, CA 91731, USATel: 1-323-984-7526, 323-410-1082Fax: 1-323-984-7374, 323-908-0457E-mail: [email protected]
David Publishing Company
www.davidpublishing.com
DAVIDPUBLISHING
D
-
8/12/2019 US-China Education Review 2013 3B
4/70
US-China
Education ReviewB
Volume 3, Number 3, March 2013 (Serial Number 22)
Contents
Teacher Education
A Potential Approach to Support Pre-service Teachers Professional Learning:
The Video Analysis of the Authentic Classroom 149
Wang Xiong
An Investigation of How Lecturers Teaching Strategies Promote Productive Classroom
Interaction 162
Helena Hing Wa Sit
Educational Policy and Adminis tration
Science Education and the Challenges Facing Its Integration Into the 21st Century School
System in a Globalized World: A Case of Igbo Nation 172
Ezeudu F. O., Nkokelonye C. U., Ezeudu S. A.
New Method of the Earth Mineral Resources Study at Ilia State University, Georgia 183
Avtandil Okrostsvaridze
Home-School Collaboration in Sweden and China 188
Margaretha Kristoffersson, Limin Gu, Yan Zhang
Educational Psychology
Finnish Sauna Behaviors, Dirty or Decent 202
Riitta Parvia
-
8/12/2019 US-China Education Review 2013 3B
5/70
-
8/12/2019 US-China Education Review 2013 3B
6/70
US-China Education Review B, ISSN 2161-6248
March 2013, Vol. 3, No. 3, 149-161
A Potential Approach to Support Pre-service Teachers
Professional Learning: The Video Analysis of the Authentic
Classroom
Wang Xiong
Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai, China
This article focused on a deeper analysis of pre-service teachers observations of video lessons based on the
authentic classrooms across three stages in eight sessions in order to reveal their changes in the abilities to
understand pedagogical content knowledge and the effects of specific observation frameworks introduced in the
observation sessions. With those aims, we developed the coding schemas at the content and the method level to
analyze the pre-service teachers observation reports and reflections. It was found that the video lesson analysis
based on the authentic classroom teaching has a great potential to support pre-service teachers professional
learning with the appropriate guidance.
Keywords:pre-service teacher, professional learning, video lesson
The Significance of the Research
It has been recommended that pre-service teachers should be offered more authentic experiences toprepare them to handle the complexity and challenges of the school context (Darling-Hammond, 1997;
Goodlad, 1990; Huling, 1998; National Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983) with the two following
assumptions: (1) exposure to examples of teaching creates learning opportunities for pre-service teachers; and
(2) through authentic experiences pre-service teachers meld theory into practice (Santagata, Zannoni, & Stigler,
2007).
Nevertheless, the previous program for the pre-service teachers professional development was mainly
operated to impart the theories on the mathematics education and the experiences abstracted from the teaching
practice in Shanghai Normal University. The pre-service teachers have such few opportunities to come into
contact with the authentic classroom teaching that they believe that: (1) The theories on the mathematics
education are so far away from the teaching practices that they are not useful to serve the future teaching
practices of pre-service teachers when they will have been in-service in one or two years; and (2) The
experiences abstracted from teaching practices stay only in the master teachers minds but far beyond mine
(Huang, 2012). The apparent chasm (Bencze, Hewitt, & Pedretti, 2001) between what often happens in
The outcome of this paper is a part of the achievements of the project The Development and Application of a Method to
Research Classroom Based on Discourse Analysis (B12031) funded by Shanghai Municipal Education Commission, and the
project The Development and Application of a Method to Research Mathematics Classroom Based on Discourse Analysis (No.SK201209) funded (2012-2013) by Shanghai Normal University.
Wang Xiong, Ph.D., associate professor, Mathematics and Science College, Shanghai Normal University.
DAVID PUBLISHING
D
-
8/12/2019 US-China Education Review 2013 3B
7/70
APPROACH TO SUPPORT PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS PROFESSIONAL LEARNING150
university-based teacher education and teaching in schoolsa theory-practice gaphas caused the instructors
to shift much of their instructing efforts out of academia and into the usage of case (Koc, Peker, & Osmanoglu,
2009) to provide opportunities for pre-service teachers to apply their theoretical and practical knowledge to
classroom contexts (Lundeberg, Levin, & Harrington, 1999).
Given the shift challenge, this research has built the pathway to getting the pre-service teachers involved
in both observation and analysis of two video lessons for the purposes of facilitating their professional learning.
The use of video in teacher preparation programs has progressed from being a means to expose pre-service
teachers to specific behaviors to be imitated to a tool for the development of teachers professional judgment.
While the video-based teacher learning projects offer promising results, many questions still remain open. On
the one hand, many would agree that, unless one has a clear goal in mind, classroom observations can easily
turn into messy and unstructured notes. Although most programs provide pre-service teachers with some kind
of guidance, the focus varies widely. What counts as effective guidance is still one open question (Santagata et
al., 2007). On the other hand, researches that document the knowledge growth and the conceptual changes of
pre-service teachers in the learning process are lacking. This paper aims to address the two gaps by analyzingthe pre-service teachers learning process in the video lessons analysis activities.
Methods
Videotaped Lessons
Two seven-grade mathematics videotaped lessons were chosen to be the case video lessons in this research.
The two lessons videotaped by the research team were an experienced teachers authentic classroom teachings
in Shanghai Tianlin Middle School, China. Its assumption was to provide an authentic classroom teaching
situation for students to analyze the learning activities in the lessons, even without the field observation. The
teaching contents of the two lessons were both about the proof strategies in geometric problems. And the two
lessons were similarly structured with the aim of learning activities arrangement for pre-service teachers
professional learning in the research. The first video lesson would be taken as a learning practical platform on
which students were able to obtain the basic skills and knowledge about how to observe and analyze a lesson;
while the second one would be done as the field of the acquired skills and knowledge application. Thus, the
similar construction of the second lesson to the first one was potential to stimulate students to apply the
obtained skills and knowledge within the second lesson situation.
Session Organization
The whole sessions were grouped into three stages with eight sessions and each session was 80 minutes.
Only Chinese was used in the sessions.
Stage oneBrainstorming observation and analysis. The first session: Encouraging students to observethe first video lesson which was projected on a big screen. Seventy-six participants who were pre-service
teachers majoring in mathematics education of Shanghai Normal University were divided into 19 groups to
facilitate the sharing of participants ideas in the observation and the analysis of video lessons. Each member
within every group was assigned the specific observation task by the group leader or initiatively took the task.
For instance, some members took notes of the lesson sequence, and others focused on the case teachers
discourse, and so on. Then, every group uploaded its observations and reflections on the first lesson to the
online forum at http://qun.qq.com/air/#141854935 which was built up for the group discussion in the research.
-
8/12/2019 US-China Education Review 2013 3B
8/70
APPROACH TO SUPPORT PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 151
After the first session, the instructor (the corresponding author) reviewed the reports of every group submitted
at the online forum. The results demonstrated that: (1) Participants mainly analyzed the lesson according to
their perceptions rather than reliable data collected from the lesson; and (2) Participants were not able to
logically express their opinions in their report of lesson observation and analysis.
Stage twoThe application of the selected analysis framework. The second session: Offering thepre-service teachers the guidance to the observation of the video lesson. Taking the review results into account,
the instructor recommended Hiebert, Carpenter, Fennema, Fuson, Wearne, and Murrays (1997) critical
dimensions of mathematics classroom as the classroom observation framework and instructed how to logically
express the analysis results. Meanwhile, the instructor presented the excellent groups reports and her own
analysis report of the lesson observation. The third session: Encouraging the pre-service teachers to re-observe
the first video lesson. The procedure of the observation activity was the same as that of the first session. Its aim
was to improve pre-service teachers abilities to observe a lesson and express their viewpoints by application of
the classroom observation framework. The fourth session: Reviewing every groups report downloaded from
the online forum and presenting the review results. The fifth session: Encouraging pre-service teachers toobserve the second video lesson. The procedure of observation was the same as that of the first and the third
sessions. This kind of design was conducive to pre-service teachers transformation of their obtained
knowledge from the previous sessions to this round observation task. Moreover, the members in each group did
not change. Under this situation, it is possible to observe the each members knowledge increase and
conceptual changes during the professional learning process through the video lesson observation and analysis.
The sixth session: Online discussion. Each group uploaded its report at the online forum. As a facilitator, the
instructor encouraged the pre-service teachers to look into the other groups reports and give the feedback on
them. The seventh session: Reviewing the group reports on the second video lesson.
Stage threeThe refinement of analysis method. The eighth session: Encouraging the pre-serviceteachers to reflect the whole learning process. A questionnaire was used to exam the pre-service teachers
capacities of refining the analysis method on the classroom teaching and their gains and experiences. The
questionnaire included the following questions: (1) Explaining how to analyze a mathematical classroom
teaching based on your previous learning activities; and (2) Summarizing the knowledge and experiences which
you acquired from the previous learning activities.
Data Sources
The data consisted of the videotaped group discussion, the groups reports, the instructors feedback, and
the questionnaires. Videotaping the group discussion was mainly intended to snatch the whole scene of the
group discussion. The group reports were downloaded from the online forum and amounted to 44. The
instructors feedback contained her own observation report, the reviews of the groups reports, and the
instructions in the sessions. The questionnaire was implemented as an exam, and therefore, every participants
answer sheet was marked. In addition, participants did not post any substantial comments on the groups reports
at the online forum, so we only catch a glance at the data from online forum discussion.
Data Analysis
The content analysis techniques were utilized (Neuendorf, 2002) to explore the participants knowledge
growth and conceptual changes and the effects of analysis frameworks provided for them. In order to capture
the pre-service teachers viewpoints and thoughts in the video lesson analysis, the coding schemes based on the
-
8/12/2019 US-China Education Review 2013 3B
9/70
APPROACH TO SUPPORT PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS PROFESSIONAL LEARNING152
five-dimensional framework of classroom (Hiebert, Carpenter, Fennema, Fuson, Wearne, & Murray, 1997)
were developed at the content and the method level: (1) mathematical task, teachers roles, classroom culture,
tools, and accessibility in Table 1; and (2) statement, portion, formalization, and elaboration (including
innovation) in Table 2 with the low and the high quality of coders in each dimension.
Table 1
The Codes at the Content Level
Codes Core features
Mathematical task Mathematics problems; Connect with where students are; Leave behind something of mathematical value
Teachers roles Select tasks with goals in mind; Share essential information; Establish classroom culture
Classroom cultureIdeas and methods are valued; Students are encouraged to share their ideas or methods; Mistakes arelearning sites for everyone; Correctness resides in mathematical argument
ToolsMeaning for tools must be constructed by each user; Used with purpose to solve problems; Used forrecording, communicating, and thinking
Accessibility Tasks are accessible to all students; Every student is heard and contributes
Table 2The Codes at the Method Level
Codes Descriptions Score interval
StatementThe context is expressed without framework and the five-dimensional
framework is not applied
Low quality: 6064
High quality: 6569
Portion Parts of the five dimensions in the framework are mentioned or discussedLow quality: 7074
High quality: 7579
FormalizationThe five-dimensional framework is applied by rote, but all the five
dimensions are mentioned or discussed
Low quality: 8084
High quality: 8589
ElaborationThe five-dimensional framework or other reasonable framework is taken asthe analysis tool
Low quality: 9094
High quality: 95100
Particularly, the participants answer sheets on the Question 1 at stage three were assigned a score by thefollowing procedures: (1) confirming a score interval by looking at the quality in each dimension at the method
level (see Table 2). Comments that did not include the certain instances of the video lessons to support the
general ideas summarized from the lessons were coded as low quality. Comments that included the certain
instances of the video lessons to support the general ideas summarized from the lessons were coded as high
quality; and (2) specifying a score within the score interval by looking at the emerging viewpoint amount. The
more viewpoints were mentioned or discussed, the higher score were marked within a score interval.
Coding Reliability
We followed three procedures to ensure coding reliability: Firstly, two coders (the corresponding authors
postgraduate students) individually coded the data. Then, we examined the code-matching rate. Initially, we
found the matching rate was 67%; Secondly, in order to increase the matching rate, the corresponding author
coordinated the disagreements negotiation in a three-way conference by going over every coded message until
the coding match rate reached 85%; and Finally, the two coders coded the entire data set maintaining the 85%
match rate.
Results
In this section, we provided the results of two types of analysis at the content and the method level. The
results were organized into the following three dimensions.
-
8/12/2019 US-China Education Review 2013 3B
10/70
APPROACH TO SUPPORT PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 153
Dimension One: The Shift From Superficial Features to Pedagogical Content Knowledge
At stage one, the pre-service teachers were encouraged to observe and analyze the first video lesson in
their own way in the first session. When they first observed the first video lesson, the pre-service teachers
tended to pay a lot of attention to the superficial features in the lesson. Firstly, during the observation process,
they kept a watchful eye on the laughable scenarios. For instance, they could not help laughing when they saw
a chubby student sitting beside the student who was answering questions, and they also talked about that the
case of teachers necktie was slanting; Secondly, in the first group reports, some groups attached importance to
the description of the superficial circumstances. For example, of 19 group reports, three focuses on the
description of what was going on in the lesson without substantial comments; Another three highlight on the
discussion of the characteristics of the case teacher, such as the appropriate dress style, nonstandard mandarin,
and the friendly face emotion; Thirdly, in the first group reports, many groups mainly stayed at the superficial
perceptions on the five dimensions of the framework. For example, of 19 group reports, two mention the
mathematical task in one very short sentence, such as The examples are typical, five mentioned the case
teachers roles in one phrase, such as Making the connection between new and previous knowledge andexplaining the proof process step by step, two mentioned the classroom culture in one phrase, such as The
active interaction between the teacher and students, three mentioned the tools in one phrase, such as The
usage of the mini blackboard, and one mentioned the accessibility in two clauses, such as The instruction is
vivid and accessible, which is easy for most students to access. Consequently, even those groups mentioned
the two, or three, or even four dimensions of the five-dimensional framework, they adopted the very general
way to discuss those without the reasoning process from the instances of the lesson.
At stage two, firstly, the pre-service teachers were encouraged to re-analyze the first video lesson, and
then to analyze the second video lesson with the instructors guidance based on the review of the groups
reports and the introduced analysis framework. Under the guidance of the instructor, and finally, the pre-service
teachers were able to focus on the analysis of the lesson tasks, the way of the case teacher helping students
construct reasoning in the proof, and the students thinking in the interaction between teacher and students, and
the tools application, and so on. The specific description was as follows:
Firstly, building on their first observation and assimilating the five-dimensional framework, all the groups
were able to organize their viewpoints into five dimensions in their second observation of the first lesson.
However, the viewpoints were still expressed in very general way, such as Teacher roles: instructing with the
targets, stimulating students initiative thinking by pointing out the key points, mobilizing the students
interests by question and interaction in the classroom. It was hard to link such viewpoints with the specific
scenarios from the lesson. Therefore, it was also difficult to examine how the viewpoints were generalized from
the evidences collected from the lesson;Secondly, taking the above situation into account, the instructor presented her own analysis report of the
first lesson and explained how to generalize and express the viewpoints based on the specific scenarios from
the lesson under the five-dimensional framework. For instance, the core feature of the examples selected in the
lesson in the dimension of mathematical task was the emerging variation theory. It could be illustrated by the
gradual changes in the structure, the background, the covered knowledge points, the questioning type
(open-closed), and the question numbers of the examples. Then, with the features, it is reasonable to understand
its significance through the students performance in the examples of learning process. Therefore, the
-
8/12/2019 US-China Education Review 2013 3B
11/70
APPROACH TO SUPPORT PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS PROFESSIONAL LEARNING154
viewpoint-variation in the example and its expression-substantial comparison data were written in very
coherent way. With the coherent expression way, it was potential to facilitate the pre-service teachers to not
only improve their viewpoints expression, but also acquire the deep understanding of the knowledge of
mathematical task. The instructors analysis report was available at the online forum;
Later on, the pre-service teachers were encouraged to observe and analyze the second video lesson taking
the instructors analysis report as a reference. Among 19 groups submitting reports, it was found that 16 groups
were able to express their viewpoints in very coherent way in each dimension of the five-dimensional
framework. For example, CG (Clover-Four Group) generalized the following six viewpoints in the dimension
of teachers roles: (1) helping students go over the previous knowledge; (2) instructing how to prove the two
lines perpendicular; (3) guiding students thinking to grasp the concept of the analytical method; (4) helping
students to find out the logical starting point of a proof; (5) paying close attention to the students feeling; and
(6) summarizing the proof method. Not only were the viewpoints generated well and truly, but also they were
illustrated by the specific scenarios from the lesson. For instance, the third viewpoint was illustrated by the
learning process of example one which was demonstrated by the photograph of blackboard-writing in thelesson and described by text referring to the black-writing photograph (see Figure 1). In addition, two groups
did not complete their reports in very serious way. They simply mentioned some facts from the lesson in their
reports without analysis of thinking inclusion. And one group did not submit the report.
Figure 1.The report segment of CG.
Overall, from stage one to stage two, the pre-service teachers were able to observe and analyze the lessons
from the focus on the superficial features to an understanding of pedagogical content knowledge with the
five-dimensional framework.
Dimension Two: The Shift From Illogical Statement to Structured Analysis
It was found that the reports of classroom observation at stage one mainly demonstrated illogical feature in
the viewpoints expression. Only one of the 19 group reports had sub-titles in the statement of observation.
Three of them stated their viewpoints in only one paragraph containing multi-dimensional viewpoints at
-
8/12/2019 US-China Education Review 2013 3B
12/70
APPROACH TO SUPPORT PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 155
random, such as the report of the ZG (Zhuo Group) (see Figure 2). In the report, we can see that the viewpoints
were disorganized based on the emerging codes pattern-mathematical task, teachers roles, classroom culture,
teachers roles, teachers roles, mathematical task, accessibility, and teachers roles, in one paragraph. Four
groups paragraphed their statements based on group members comments, and five paragraphed their
statements based on the following two dimensions: merits and demerits, such as the report of the LG (Life
Group) (see Figure 3). In the report, the viewpoints were organized into merits and demerits paragraph. Each
paragraph generally mentioned multi-dimensional viewpoints. For example, the merits paragraph contained the
following messages: detailed explanation (teachers roles), multi-consideration of students situation (teachers
roles), proper organization and linkage of classroom activities (teachers roles), interaction with students
(classroom culture), and going over the previous knowledge to deepen students memory at early stage of the
lesson (teachers roles).
Figure 2. The report and coding of the ZG.
Figure 3.The report of the LG.
-
8/12/2019 US-China Education Review 2013 3B
13/70
APPROACH TO SUPPORT PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS PROFESSIONAL LEARNING156
At stage two, when the groups re-observed and re-analyzed the first lesson, it was found that 16 of 17
groups used the five-dimensional analysis framework to organize their reports (Note: Two groups did not
submit their reports). However, seven groups thereof directly adopted the table and its features of the
five-dimensional analysis framework to state their comments, such as the report of Lu Group (see Figure 4). It
was not difficult to find out that the group tended to fill out the features of each dimension in the table by the
general facts abstracted from the lesson. Therefore, to a great extent, such usage of the analysis framework as
filling out the table limited pre-service teachers thinking in the analysis of the lesson. The other nine groups
were able to elaborate their viewpoints and link them to the specific instances collected from the lesson under
the five-dimensions of the analysis framework.
Figure 4. The report of the Lu Group.
More importantly, when the groups observed and analyzed the second video lesson under the instructors
guidance, 16 of 19 groups substantially improved the capacities of generalizing and expressing their viewpoints
when they used the five-dimensional framework as the analysis tool. For example, in the report of AG (see
Figure 5), each dimension led a paragraph and each paragraph discussed one topic that related to the dimension
of the analysis framework. Therefore, the analysis framework facilitated the groups to clear up their viewpoints
that came out during the lesson observation and analysis. Meanwhile, the analysis framework was able to
stimulate the groups to deepen their concepts on the dimensions. For example, as for the dimension of tools, thegroups not only discussed the obvious material objects, such as mini blackboard, ruler, and compasses, but also
recognized the role of the soft tools. For example, CG considered the role of underscoring the keywords by
colored chalk in helping the students understand the problems structures. And the EG (E Group) insightfully
recognized the role of the flow charts used in the explanation of problem-solving process in helping the
students construct a clear train of thought.
Overall, from stage one to stage two, the pre-service teachers were able to demonstrate their viewpoints
from illogical statement to structured analysis based on the five-dimensional framework.
-
8/12/2019 US-China Education Review 2013 3B
14/70
APPROACH TO SUPPORT PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 157
Figure 5.The report of the AG (Ao G.roup).
Dimension Three: The Shift From the Skilled Video Analysis to the Valued Beliefs on Mathematics
Teaching
At stage three, based on the two previous learning stages, the participants were asked to reflect the whole
process of the video analysis activity with the intention to refine the method of analyzing a classroom teaching
in the form of exam. Therefore, the collected answering sheets showed the participants independent thinking
results. Thus, to some extent, it is possible to examine the individual involvement in the previous learning
activities through the statements in the answering sheet.On one hand, it was found that 84.2% participants had set the mind upon applying the five-dimensional
framework (including the other created proper frameworks) to analyze a lesson, even 15.8% participants
thereof could not completely apply it (see Figure 6). This meant they were capable to refine the analysis
method of the classroom teaching from the video lesson analysis process.
For example, Miss Xu offered the answer in the following way (see Figure 7): Level oneIf we want to
analyze a classroom teaching, we should firstly understand the teaching content and its key pointsThe
dimension of mathematical task was taken as a tool to observe a classroom teaching; Level twoFor example,
when I observed the first video lesson, it was found that the teaching content-analytical method and synthesized
method were clearly wrote down on the blackboardThe facts were selected from previous observation
activities to support the dimension; and Level threeIt was very useful to stimulate students to realize the
lesson focusThe application of the two methods in the proof problems, which definitely would mobilize their
thinkingThe comments based on the facts that were able to indicate the significances of the dimension as a
tool to observe a lesson. With such statement pattern, she discussed the other four dimensions of the
five-dimensional framework. It was reasonable to confirm that pre-service teacher Xu was able to apply the
five-dimensional framework in the methodological perspective and refine the analysis method from the
previous activities as the commentsthe clear analysis framework and the exact cases in pointoffered from
the instructor at the top of the sheet and her own summarizations in the front of her answering from
-
8/12/2019 US-China Education Review 2013 3B
15/70
APPROACH TO SUPPORT PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS PROFESSIONAL LEARNING158
disorganization to proper organized and multi-dimensional framework in the analysis (see Figure 7).
34.2 34.2
15.8 15.8
0
10
20
30
40
90-100 80-90 70-80 60-70Percentage
of
Peop
le
Number
Score Interval Figure 6.The reflection scores.
Figure 7. The report of the pre-service teacher Xu.
The reflection not only facilitated pre-service teachers to refine the method of observing and analysing a
lesson, but also deepened their views on the lesson plan, the students cognition, the interaction between
teacher and students, and even the career as a mathematics teacher. For example, as for the lesson plan, Mr. Jin
believed that a teacher should consider the selected examples in variation theory at the lesson plan stage and
Miss Yang stated that a teacher should fully prepare himself for a lesson before it started in terms of the
teaching content, the predicable students difficulties, and the full mind state. As for the students cognition, Mr.Sun suggested that teaching was to help students find out the solution when they confronted a new problem, not
only impart to them the new concept or problem-solving skill. And Miss Li further indicated that a teacher
should pay close attention to not only the students cognitive situation but psychological health as well. For
example, if a student could not answer a question, the teacher should encourage the student to further his/her
thinking by offering some prompts, which was able to build the students confidence. Likewise, Mr. Ye
mentioned that an active interaction between teacher and students would exalt students learning interests.
More importantly, as for the teachers career, 98% pre-service teachers in their reflections stated that being a
-
8/12/2019 US-China Education Review 2013 3B
16/70
-
8/12/2019 US-China Education Review 2013 3B
17/70
-
8/12/2019 US-China Education Review 2013 3B
18/70
APPROACH TO SUPPORT PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 161
References
Bencze, L., Hewitt, J., & Pedretti, E. (2001). Multi-media case methods in pre-service science education: Enabling an
apprenticeship for praxis.Research in Science Education, 31, 191-209.
Darling-Hammond, L. (1997). Doing what matters most: Investing in quality teaching. New York: National Commission on
Teaching & Americas Future.
Goodlad, J. I. (1990). Teachers for our nations schools. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Hiebert, J., Carpenter, T. P., Fennema, E., Fuson, K. C., Wearne, D., & Murray, H. (1997).Making sense: Teaching and learning
mathematics with understanding. Portsmouth, N. H.: Heinemann.
Huang, H. (2012). The cultivation of pre-serive teachersA case from the major of Mathematics and Applied Mathematics
(teacher-training) in Shanghai Normal University (Unpublished masters thesis, Shanghai Normal University).
Huling, L. (1998). Early field experiences in teacher education. Washington, D. C.: ERIC Clearinghouse on Teaching and
Teacher Education.
Koc, Y., Peker, D., & Osmanoglu, A. (2009). Supporting teacher professional development through online video case study
discussions: An assemblage of pre-service and in-service teachers and the case teacher. Teaching and Teacher Education,
25(8), 1158-1168.
Lundeberg, M. A., Levin, B. B., & Harrington, H. L. (1999). Who learns what from cases and how? The research base for
teaching and learning with cases. Mahwah, N. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
National Commission on Excellence in Education. (1983).A Nation at risk: The imperative for education reform. Washington, D.
C.: U.S. Department of Education.
Neuendorf, K. A. (2002). The content analysis guidebook. Thousand Oaks, C. A.: Sage Publications.
Santagata, R., Zannoni, C., & Stigler, W. J. (2007). The role of lesson analysis in pre-service teacher education: An empirical
investigation of teacher learning from a virtual video-based field experience. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education,
10(2), 123-140.
-
8/12/2019 US-China Education Review 2013 3B
19/70
US-China Education Review B, ISSN 2161-6248March 2013, Vol. 3, No. 3, 162-171
An Investigation of How Lecturers Teaching Strategies Promote
Productive Classroom Interaction
Helena Hing Wa Sit
Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
Both the Mainland and Hong Kong have witnessed the trend of educational internationalisation since the handover.
The recruitment of non-local students is regarded as an important strategy to internalise universities in Hong Kong.
Within Hong Kongs western-style educational setting, an increasing number of Mainland students attracted by the
English-medium education and widely adopted western-oriented pedagogy have become the majority non-local
students. Studies explored the adjustment experiences of Mainland students to study in Hong Kong and found
evidence that the adjustment of the host group was as difficult as the sojourning group did in classroom interaction.
Nevertheless, limited research examines the role of teachers in promoting interaction between diverse learners from
pedagogical perspective. Effective teaching strategies can enhance positive classroom interaction. There is
substantial literature within disciplines, such as healthcare, economics, and teacher education, but there is little
investigation of effective strategies in English that studies as a discipline, particularly, in the new context of the
HKSAR (Hong Kong Special Administrative Region), PRC (Peoples Republic of China). This paper attempted to
investigate how lecturers teaching strategies promoted productive interaction through surveys in the discipline of
English. The results should have implications for other worldwide institutions other than Hong Kong involved in
enhancing quality teaching and learning in higher education.
Keywords: higher education, teaching strategies, cross-cultural teaching and learning, English studies
Context of the Study
Having had British colonial regime for over a century, Hong Kong as a special administrative region was
reunited with the PRC (Peoples Republic of China) in 1997. Due to the closer relationship between Hong
Kong and Mainland China, a set of strategic collaborative programs across all fronts including education as one
of the main public services have been broadened and deepened. In particular, the UGC (University Grants
Committee) (2011), a local funding body that sponsors the Hong Kong public-funded institutions and offers
expert advice to the government on higher education has set up the goal of attracting and retaining high quality
of non-local students to study and live in Hong Kong to further internationalize its higher education sector.
In terms of the student resources of Hong Kongs higher education, a significant change has also occurred.
Hong Kong attempts to do whatever the government could to link with the Mainland including education. In
the late 1990s, only several hundred talented Mainland Chinese undergraduates on scholarship were brought
into Hong Kongs universities to study (Shive, 2005). From then on, more Mainland students were recruited by
many local graduate programs. So far the non-local student quota for publicly-funded programs has been raised
Helena Hing Wa Sit, lecturer, Ph.D., Learning and Teaching Centre, Macquarie University.
DAVID PUBLISHING
D
-
8/12/2019 US-China Education Review 2013 3B
20/70
LECTURERS TEACHING STRATEGIES, PRODUCTIVE CLASSROOM INTERACTION 163
from 10% to 20%. Currently, the Mainland Chinese students have become the majority of non-local students in
Hong Kong higher education (UGC, 2011). Other non-local students are from South-Asian countries (e.g.,
Indonesia, Japan, and Malaysia), European countries (e.g., UK, Italy, and Spain), North America, and Australia.
In the academic year of 2010/2011, 8,713 full-time Mainland Chinese (out of 10,074 non-local students)
accounted for approximately 90% of the total student population. As a result, how to enhance quality teaching
and learning has drawn academics attention when facing students diversity and cultural inclusivity. To
implement the project in a manageable way, this study only focused on the Mainland students as the largest
non-local student source.
Previous cross-cultural teaching and learning studies conducted in Hong Kong can be generally classified
as two main research streams. The one is concerned with Hong Kong Chinese background students. For
example, Watkins and Biggs (2001) examined the Hong Kong students learning approaches and challenged
the paradox of Chinese surface learning; Kember (2001) learned the process of teaching and learning as a
factor in Hong Kong students adjusting to study in higher education. The other focuses more with newly
arrived Mainland Chinese background students. For instance, recent research studied Mainland Chinesestudents acculturation experiences (Zeng, 2006) and their shifts in English learning strategy use in the host
university in Hong Kong (Gao, 2007). Only a few studies have drawn attention on both groups of students. As
a result, another new research stream is become available. Examples can be seen from the research that
compared learning approach use between Hong Kong and Mainland construction engineering students in Hong
Kong and Mainland China (Leung, Li, Fang, X. H. Lu, & M. Lu, 2006), but it did not discuss these samples
learning situations in the same context of Hong Kong. When the adjustment experiences of a group of
Mainland undergraduate students from the first cohort to study in a university of Hong Kong in 1999, Lam
(2006) unexpectedly found evidence that the adjustment of the host group was as difficult as the adjustment of
the sojourning group due to their different social, cultural, and educational experiences. However, the study did
not examine the role of a teacher in promoting positive interaction between diverse learners from pedagogical
point of view.
This study reported an investigation of the lecturers preferences for teaching strategies at universities in
Hong Kong and how these strategies promoted productive classroom interaction. To date, there is a small body
of research which deals with teaching strategies for advanced learners of English in Hong Kongs universities
although methods of teaching English have been repeatedly discussed in language education in Hong Kong.
This study focused on teaching strategies that promoted interactions between Mainland Chinese students and
local Hong Kong students at the senior level of learning disciplines in English.
Research Methods
The taxonomy of teaching strategies proposed by Killen (1998) was used as the framework design for the
study. In general, the seven commonly used teaching strategies in western contexts: DI (direct instruction), CD
(classroom discussion), SGW (small group work), CL (cooperative learning), PS (problem-solving), SR
(student research), and PA (performance activities)are described to effectively facilitate students to learn and to
interact. A study conducted by Sit (2012) has identified that their existence and frequency of use in the
discipline of English in Hong Kongs universities. Following this trend, this study aimed to find evidence on
the effectiveness of these strategies for enhancing classroom interaction within the learning environment of
Hong Kong.
-
8/12/2019 US-China Education Review 2013 3B
21/70
LECTURERS TEACHING STRATEGIES, PRODUCTIVE CLASSROOM INTERACTION164
To gain an understanding of lecturers attitudes towards teaching diverse advanced English students, a
survey as quantitative data collection procedure was designed to identify teachers preferences for strategies and
examining the effectiveness of these strategies for promoting classroom interaction. Survey research can help
the researcher to generalize a numeric description of a specific sample, characteristics, attitudes, perceptions, or
opinions on a particular issue to the wider population. There is an economy of the design and the rapid
turnaround in data collection (Creswell, 2009, p. 146) and the ability to tap the subjective feelings of the
public (Fowler, 2002, p. 2).
This study was conducted in the English departments, the HKU (University of Hong Kong) and HKIEd
(Hong Kong Institute of Education). HKU is a leading comprehensive university while HKIEd is an inclusive
educational institution focusing on teacher training and development. Both the two universities have an
increasing number of local and Mainland students applying for first-year-first-degree places (EDBThe
Education Bureau, 2007). Two sets of data will allow a comparative analysis.
Table 1
HKU Participants Surveyed
No. Gender Level of course Years of teaching Role in the course English native speaker
1 Female Year 2 and 3 More than 10 years Lecturing No
2 Female Year 2 and 3 13 years Coordinating and lecturing Yes
3 Male Year 2 More than 10 years Lecturing Yes
4 Male Year 2 and 3 More than 10 years Coordinating and lecturing No
5 Male Year 2 and 3 More than 10 years Lecturing No
6 Male Year 1 and 2 46 years Lecturing and tutoring No
7 Female Year 1 46 years Lecturing and tutoring No
8 Female Year 2 13 years Lecturing No
9 Female Year 1 13 years Lecturing Yes
10 Female Year 1 4
6 years Lecturing No11 Female Year 1 46 years Lecturing and tutoring Yes
Table 2
HKIEd Teachers Surveyed
No. Gender Level of course Years of teaching Role in the courseEnglish nativespeaker
12 Male Year 2 More than 10 years Lecturing and tutoring No
13 Male Year 1 13 years Lecturing and tutoring Yes
14 Male Year 2 and 3 More than 10 years Coordinating, lecturing, and tutoring Yes
15 Male Year 1 More than 10 years Lecturing and tutoring No
16 Male Year 1 46 years Coordinating, lecturing, and tutoring No
17 Male Year 1 1
3 years Lecturing and tutoring No
18 Female Year 1 13 years Coordinating, lecturing, and tutoring Yes
19 Female Year 2 46 years Lecturing and tutoring No
20 Female Year 2 and 3 More than 10 years Lecturing No
21 Female Year 1 and 2 More than 10 years Lecturing and tutoring Yes
22 Female Year 2 More than 10 years Coordinating, lecturing, and tutoring No
The participants were teachers who were teaching an undergraduate course in the English Departments of
HKU and HKIEd. Of the total 36 academics sampled, 22 (11 at HKU and 11 at HKIEd) completed the
questionnaires posted to them and the response rate was 61%. The researcher was aware of the limitation of
-
8/12/2019 US-China Education Review 2013 3B
22/70
LECTURERS TEACHING STRATEGIES, PRODUCTIVE CLASSROOM INTERACTION 165
survey for a small number of subjects. Since the data collected in a small sample size, any results must be
accepted with a caution. Tables 1 and 2 summarize background information of the subjects.
Tables 1 and 2 show that each institution consisted of 36% of the subjects speaking English as their
mother-tongue. They were from English-speaking or European countries while the remainders were from Hong
Kong or Mainland China. Ten (out of 22) academics were experienced lecturers, because they had already
gained more than 10 years of lecturing and tutoring experience. The rest were either novice teachers or
short-term contract teaching fellows.
Study Results
All the participants responded to the questionnaire that was designed to scrutinize the seven teaching
strategies identified by Killen (1998), so that teachers preferences for these strategies could be revealed. With
a purpose to check students interaction from the eyes of lecturers, the other section of the survey was
concerned with classroom interaction and teaching strategies that promoted communication between these two
groups of students. The data were processed by SPSS (Statistical Program for Social Sciences) software togenerate means and SD (standard deviations). T-tests were conducted to look for differences in response
between the institutions. With regard to gender, educational backgrounds, and teaching experience, the
quantitative statistical results could not provide much significant or valuable evidence because of the limited
number of subjects.
Preferences to Use Teaching Strategies
This section of questionnaire was designed to investigate the teaching strategies preferred by the teachers.
Table 1 summarizes the responses from the participants in terms of their preferences for each teaching strategy.
The question includes statements in relation to seven individual strategies and requires participants to give their
opinions by indicating their agreement or disagreement on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 (Strongly disagree)
to 5 (Strongly agree). These items and relevant indicators are listed below:
(1) DII prefer direct instruction because it is very effective for teaching fundamental concepts or knowledge of the
subject. It allows me to convey a large amount of information in a relatively short time;
(2) CDI prefer classroom discussion because it can involve students in learning actively, motivate them to express
ideas, and help enhance their social communication means, such as listening, speaking politely, and respecting others
views;
(3) SGWI prefer small group work because it can help students exchange ideas from diverse perspectives, deepen
their understanding of course content, improve their communication skills, and increase their active participation in
learning;
(4) CLI prefer cooperative learning because it can encourage students to achieve a desired task cooperatively. It not
only helps students to share responsibilities for their own learning, but it also enhances the learning of other group
members;
(5) PSI prefer problem-solving because it helps develop students critical thinking skills, resourcefulness,
independence, and self-confidence and their ability to apply knowledge to some real-world situations;
(6) SRI prefer student research because it can enable students to develop a deep understanding of the subject and
develop their organizational and time-management skills;
(7) PAI prefer performance activity because it can engage students in learning activities and provide them with
opportunities to develop their communication skills.
The above items and statements were used as indicators of preference and reasons for preference. The use
of a 5-point Likert scale resulted in statistically comparable results (see Table 3).
-
8/12/2019 US-China Education Review 2013 3B
23/70
LECTURERS TEACHING STRATEGIES, PRODUCTIVE CLASSROOM INTERACTION166
Table 3
Preferences to Use Teaching Strategies at HKU and HKIEd
Preferences for teachingstrategies
HKU (n= 11) HKIEd (n= 11) T-test(Sig.)Mean SD Mean SD
DI 3.81 0.75 3.54 1.04 nsCD 4.27 0.47 4.18 0.87 ns
SGW 3.63 0.92 4.27 0.47 ns
CL 3.82 0.75 4.18 0.60 ns
PS 4.18 0.60 3.55 1.04 ns
SR 4.27 0.65 3.27 1.27 t= 2.32*
PA 3.45 0.69 3.82 0.75 ns
Notes.*p< 0.05; ns = non-significant.
On the HKU site, preferences for SR (4.27) and CD (4.27) were rated as the highest. Preference for PS
(4.18) was also high but PA (3.45) was the lowest. On the HKIEd site, the results showed that SGW (4.27), CD
(4.18), and CL (4.18) were highly rated, but SR (3.27) gained the lowest rate. The t-values of preferences for
most teaching strategies except for SR were more than 0.05. No major differences were found between the two
institutions. However, preference for SR was estimated as t= 2.32, p< 0.05. This showed that there was a
significant gap between the two research sites. The HKU group was more enthusiastic on SR than the HKIEd
group.
Classroom InteractionHow Classes Are ConductedA question surveyed the participants responses on classroom interaction. They needed to consider how
they conducted their classes to promote interaction between Mainland and Hong Kong students and rate the
items on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (Strongly agree). Five items are listed as:
(1) LecturingLecturing is used as a major means of communication with students in my classroom;
(2) Students with different cultural backgrounds working together
Students with different cultural backgrounds are
encouraged to work together to generate ideas or opinions;
(3) Mainland and Hong Kong students participate in classBoth Mainland students and Hong Kong students
participate in class activities by raising questions and expressing their ideas;
(4) Mainland and Hong Kong students cooperate in classMainland students and Hong Kong students interact and
cooperate well in most collaborative classroom activities;
(5) Mainland and Hong Kong students have troubles in interactionWhen Mainland students and Hong Kong
students meet each other in class, they communicate less than when they are with other Mainland or Hong Kong students.
Table 4 shows the overall picture of students interaction.
Table 4
Classroom Interaction Between Mainland and Hong Kong Students
Classroom interaction between Mainland and Hong Kong studentsHKU (n= 11) HKIEd (n= 11)
T-test (Sig.)Mean SD Mean SD
Lecturing 3.18 1.17 3.27 1.01 ns
Students with different cultural backgrounds working together 3.73 0.65 3.82 1.08 ns
Mainland and Hong Kong students participate in class 2.91 1.38 3.81 0.75 ns
Mainland and Hong Kong students cooperate in class 3.64 0.67 3.09 0.83 ns
Mainland and Hong Kong students have troubles in interaction 2.90 0.74 3.73 0.90 t = -2.31*
Notes. *p< 0.05; ns = non-significant.
-
8/12/2019 US-China Education Review 2013 3B
24/70
LECTURERS TEACHING STRATEGIES, PRODUCTIVE CLASSROOM INTERACTION 167
The numbers displayed in the table indicated that there was no striking difference between the HKU and
HKIEd groups with respect to the first four items. The first item about encouraging Mainland and Hong Kong
student to work together by the HKU group (3.73) and the HKIEd group (3.82) was the strongest response.
There was an obvious gap between HKU (2.90) and HKIEd (3.73) in terms of the last item indicating Mainland
and Hong Kong students had troubles in interaction. The t-value (t = -2.31, p < 0.05) provided sufficient
evidence that the HKIEd group of teachers found more problems in relation to the interaction between
Mainland and Hong Kong students than the HKU group did. The rate of agreement on cooperation between
Mainland and Hong Kong students in class at HKIEd (3.09) was also statistically lower than that of HKU
(3.64).
However, not many written responses were added to the open space of the question. Only one teacher at
HKIEd expanded the reason pertaining to the problems with Mainland and Hong Kong students interaction. It
was reflected that this might depend on the student composition of the two groups of students because one
teacher reported that if there were fewer Mainland students in class, they would mix more with the local
students.
Classroom Interaction-Effective Strategies to Promote Interaction
The participants answered a question which required them to report what teaching strategies should be
effective for promoting productive classroom interaction. Again, their responses varied on a 5-point Likert
scale from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (Strongly agree). Table 5 shows their ratings.
Table 5
Effective Strategies to Promote Interaction
Effective teachingstrategies
HKU (n= 11) HKIEd (n= 11)T-test (Sig.)
Mean SD Mean SD
DI 3.45 1.29 3.00 1.26 nsCD 4.36 0.50 4.18 0.40 ns
SGW 3.73 0.65 4.27 0.47 t= -2.27*
CL 3.73 0.65 4.09 0.83 ns
PS 3.91 0.54 3.91 0.54 ns
SR 3.64 0.67 3.91 0.70 ns
PA 4.00 0.63 3.82 0.98 ns
Notes.*p< 0.05; ns = non-significant.
In general, the participants at HKU and HKIEd found that teaching strategies including CD, SWG, CL, PS,
SR, and PA were more effective than DI to promote classroom interaction. Particularly, CD (4.36), PA (4.00),
and PS (3.91) got the first three high ranks at HKU. SWG (4.27), CD (4.18), and CL (4.09) ranked highly atHKIEd. Except for SGW (t = -2.27, p < 0.05), t-tests found no significant difference between the two
institutions for other strategies. This gap showed that the HKIEd favored SGW than the HKU group. As to the
reasons behind this gap, analysis would be made in the discussion section.
Four lecturers from HKIEd wrote down their additional opinions about effective teaching strategies to
enhance productive classroom interaction. Other helpful strategies, such as weekly feedback online and
biographical sharing were recommended to give students an opportunity to ask questions, which is not
always possible in or after class. These comments seemed to illustrate that teachers at HKIEd were more
enthusiastic in considering more effective strategies beyond those seven checked in this study.
-
8/12/2019 US-China Education Review 2013 3B
25/70
LECTURERS TEACHING STRATEGIES, PRODUCTIVE CLASSROOM INTERACTION168
Discussion
On the whole, all the participants were keen to use these seven strategies. The majority had greater
preferences for student-centred teaching strategies including CD, SGW, CL, PS, SR, and PA. This tendency
might derive from their educational backgrounds and qualifications. Most teachers in this current study wereacademics trained internationally and received their Ph.D. degrees in western countries where student-centred
teaching practices are widely used and emphasised. Most teachers in this study may expect students to
construct knowledge by themselves rather than rely on teachers transmissive knowledge. Therefore, students
acquisition of independent study skills was more valued. Westwood (2008) claimed that student-centred
teaching strategies are necessary to empower learners with great autonomy and to establish collaborative work
with others. The statistics showed that whether the participants were English native speakers or not, they had
been strongly influenced by the rationales of student-centred approaches. Teachers tended to expect students to
learn through their firsthand experience. This was also consistent with Hong Kongs western style higher
education sector that emphasizes on autonomous learning and independent thinking. As such, the frequencies of
using student-centred strategies at the two institutions were higher than direct instruction which is more
teacher-centred.
In addition, the quantitative data indicated that the two groups of participants had different preferences for
some specific student-centred teaching strategies. For example, the HKU group was keen on SR while the
HKIEd group favoured SGW more. Context of teaching and learning might account for differences between
the two sites. In the highly research-orientated environment of HKU, research capability and academic insights
are particularly valued (School of English-HKU, 2009). The teachers at HKU tended to emphasize the
scholarship of subject matter in English studies. The written response from the HKU group stated explicitly that
analyzing data as a research activity was also used as an alternative strategy. By contrast, the teachers at HKIEd
were inclined to pay more attention to the professional development of students since their main responsibilityis preparing new teachers for the workforce. Teaching competence is a major concern in teacher training
institutions because teachers are playing a role model for students. Most HKIEd teachers hold a teaching
qualification in addition to an academic higher degree. They have been trained in how to use various teaching
strategies effectively apart from a command of academic side of subject matter. Their written response could be
a good reflection of this point. Providing class time for SGW may have provided students with opportunities
to use this teaching strategy and to understand the value of the student-centred approach. As a result, the
contexts of teaching and learning in the two research sites are different. The institutional culture and the
composition of the teachers with various academic and teaching qualifications could be the contributing factors
to the preference of using some specific teaching strategies.
The other noteworthy point was related to classroom interaction, especially the communication between
Mainland and Hong Kong students through the teachers eyes. The interaction difficulties raised by the HKIEd
participants were bigger than the HKU teachers. To some extent, this could be linked with student minority
status or majority status in class. Liu (2002) concluded that Mainland students with their minority status in
American classrooms were inclined to keep silence as a means of self-protection or as a sign to express their
agreement and harmony with the majority of local students. During classroom communication and interaction,
it was natural for them to work as a subordinate group when interacting with the dominant social group usually
enjoying more power over the minority groups. Similarly, student composition of Mainland and Hong Kong
-
8/12/2019 US-China Education Review 2013 3B
26/70
LECTURERS TEACHING STRATEGIES, PRODUCTIVE CLASSROOM INTERACTION 169
students at HKU and HKIEd might be a factor that affects their interaction. The confident Hong Kong students
with higher self-esteem tended to place themselves in a more favourable position in terms of the power
relations with Mainland students.
Although HKU is one of the most prestigious comprehensive institutions, attracting the largest population
of Mainland students (UGC, 2011), it had relatively less Mainland students studying in the Department of
English. In the observed lessons for this study, only a few had some Mainland students. For example, 16 out of
117 students in a mass lecture were from the Mainland and accounted for 13% of the total class population.
Major selection could be considered as a reason behind this. In accordance with the employment statistics in
Hong Kong, more than 50% of Mainland university graduates worked in Hong Kong in 2009 and the financial
services industry were their largest employer (EIC, 2010). It would be easier for most Mainland students to
choose careers, such as business, medicine, information technology, and media in Hong Kong (Qiu & Lin,
2010). One of the HKU teachers also noticed that the degree of interaction between Mainland and Hong Kong
students seemed to depend on the number of Mainland students among the host students. If there were fewer of
them, they needed to mix more with local students. Due to their minority status, Mainland students tended to
follow the mainstream in class activities. Furthermore, their presence often drew little attention from the
majority, namely, large numbers of Hong Kong students. In this sense, conflicts between students might be
invisible.
By contrast, the Department of English at HKIEd recruited a large number of Mainland students. In the
recent academic years, over 57% of the student intake in the department was Mainland undergraduates studying
English language teacher education programs (Gao & Trent, 2009). The majority of the visited classes were
predominantly Mainland Chinese (with Hong Kong students becoming minority) and some comprised half
Mainland and half Hong Kong students. This kind of student body indicated that the English language teaching
profession was also highly attractive to a great number of Mainland and Hong Kong students. Employmentmay direct such a choice. Both research sites may compete not only academically, but also in graduate
employment.
Teaching is a highly respectable profession in traditional Chinese culture and English language teaching is
today considered a prestigious occupation. In 2005, teaching was rated as the third most desirable profession by
Hong Kong local secondary school students among 20 careers (Lai et al., 2005). To most Mainland students
who want to work in or migrate to Hong Kong, studying a four-year-language education program can be
helpful, because the immigration policy requires them to spend at least seven years on permanent residency,
with monthly starting salary no lower than HK$11,000 (EIC, 2010). Statistics show that HKIEd graduates
excelled and achieved full employment at 100% in 2009, earning an average monthly salary of HK$18,014
(HKIEd, 2010). As a result, more and more Mainland and Hong Kong students tend to choose language
education, because it can not only improve their English competence, but also help them to get a job easily.
As such, both majority and minority should have an impact on students interaction. Mainland students
had become a majority group in class. In other words, they could also exercise power over subordinate groups
and form their own mainstream of learning and communication. Some lecturers from both research sites found
that getting Mainland and Hong Kong students to interact was hard because seldom did they talk with each
other until it was required. The two groups of students preferred to stick to their own groups. However, the
more the two groups of students worked separately, the less Mainland and Hong Kong mixed groups would be
-
8/12/2019 US-China Education Review 2013 3B
27/70
-
8/12/2019 US-China Education Review 2013 3B
28/70
LECTURERS TEACHING STRATEGIES, PRODUCTIVE CLASSROOM INTERACTION 171
References
Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks,
Calif.: Sage Publications.
EDB (The Education Bureau). (2007). Legislative council brief: Developing Hong Kong as a regional education hub. Retrieved
May 2, 2008, from http://www.edb.gov.hk/FileManager/EN/Content_927/legco%20brief-e.pdfEIC. (2010). Employment rate in Hong Kong: Most of mainland students ideal careers in Hong Kong. Retrieved June 2, 2010,
from http://news.eic.org.cn/News.aspx?id=8150
Fowler, F. J. (2002). Survey research method(3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, C.A.: Sage Publications.
Gao, X. (2007). Language learning experiences and learning strategy research: Voices of a mainland Chinese student in Hong
Kong.Innovations in Language Learning and Teaching, 1(2), 193-207.
Gao, X., & Trent, J. (2009). Understanding mainland Chinese students motivations for choosing teacher education programmes
in Hong Kong.Journal of Education for Teaching, 35(2), 145-159.
Gieve, S., & Clark, R. (2005). The Chinese approach to learning: Cultural trait or situated response? System, 33(2), 261-276.
HKIEd (Hong Kong Institute of Education). (2010). Press release: HKIEd graduates excel in job hunt; First early childhood
graduates all employed. Retrieve August 16, 2010, from http://www.ied.edu.hk/web/news.php?id=20100519
Kember, D. (2001). Beliefs about knowledge and the process of teaching and learning as a factor in adjusting to study. Higher
Education, 26(2), 205-21.Killen, R. (1998). Effective teaching strategies: Lessons from research and practice (2nd ed.). Katoomba, N. S. W.: Social
Science Press.
Lai, K., Chan, K., Ko, K., & So, K. (2005). Teaching as a career: A perspective from Hong Kong senior secondary students.
Journal of Education for Teaching, 31, 153-168.
Lam, M. H. (2006). Reciprocal adjustment by host and sojourning groups: Mainland Chinese students in Hong Kong. In M.
Byram, & A. W. Feng. (Eds.), Living and studying aboard: Research and practice (pp. 91-108). Clevedon: Multilingual
Matters.
Leung, M. Y., Li, J. Y., Fang, Z., Lu, X. H., & Lu, M. (2006). Learning approaches of construction engineering students: A
comparative study between Hong Kong and Mainland China.Journal for Education in the Built Environment, 1(1), 112-131.
Qiu, L. Y., & Lin, J. (2010). Business largely attracts Mainland students coming to Hong Kong for employment or education. In
China News. Retrieved June 3, 2009, from http://news.jyb.cn/china/gat/201002/t20100203_339279.html
School of English-HKU. (2009). General information about School of English, the University of Hong Kong . RetrievedNovember 9, 2009, from http://www.hku.hk/english/aboutus.htm
Shive, G. (2005). Hong Kong universities welcoming Mainland students.International Educator, 14(5), 12-16.
Sit, H. W. (2012). Teaching strategies for enhancing peer interaction among diverse learners. Higher Education Studies, 2(4),
31-39.
UGC (University Grants Committee). (2011). Figures: Non-local student enrolment (headcount) of UGC-funded programmes by
institution, level of study, place of origin and mode of study. University Grants Committee.
Watkins, D. A., & Biggs, J. B. (Eds.). (2001). Teaching the Chinese learner: Psychological and pedagogical perspectives. Hong
Kong/Melbourne: CERC & ACER.
Westwood, P. (2008). What teachers need to know about teaching methods. Camberwell, Vic.: ACER Press.
Zeng, M. (2006). The adaptation of Mainland Chinese research postgraduates to the University of Hong Kong (Unpublished
doctoral dissertation, The University of Hong Kong).
-
8/12/2019 US-China Education Review 2013 3B
29/70
US-China Education Review B, ISSN 2161-6248
March 2013, Vol. 3, No. 3, 172-182
Science Education and the Challenges Facing Its Integration Into
the 21st Century School System in a Globalized World: A Case
of Igbo Nation
Ezeudu F. O., Nkokelonye C. U., Ezeudu S. A.
University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria
This paper is a study of historical foundations of science education in Igboland, its nature and scope as well as the
challenges facing its integration into the 21st century school system in a globalized world. The authors found that
there were many scientific activities in Igbo culture, but many problems hinder their integration into the basic needs
of modern society. For instance, imposing the needs of a globalized world of the 21st century on modernized
African (Igbo) science is like imposing industrial chemistry on non-industrialized society. Implications of the
findings were discussed in this paper.
Keywords: science education, globalization, Igboland, Igbo culture, Igbo metaphysics, Igbo science, indigenous
Igbo ideologies, western education in Igbo land
The Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to identify scientific activities in pre-colonial Igbo society and show howthese could be integrated into the school system. The paper also explored/examined the extent these indigenous
science process skills can be harnessed to meet the challenges of globalization.
Specifically, the study shall be investigating the following:
(1) History of education in pre-colonial Igbo society in order to dig up the root of Igbo science process
skills;
(2) The advent of western education among the Igbos and establishment of schools;
(3) The scientific process skills in Igbo culture;
(4) Globalization and science education;
(5) Issues, implications, and challenges of globalization in Igbo nation;
(6) Summary;
(7) Recommendations.
History of Education in Pre-colonial Igbo Society
Education in pre-colonial Igbo society was merely a process of enculturation through instructional agents.
Ezeudu F. O., Ph.D., Department of Science Education, University of Nigeria.Nkokelonye C. U., Ph.D., professor, Department of Education Foundation, University of Nigeria.
Ezeudu S. A., Ph.D., professor, Department of Social Science Education, University of Nigeria.
DAVID PUBLISHING
D
-
8/12/2019 US-China Education Review 2013 3B
30/70
SCIENCE EDUCATION AND THE CHALLENGES FACING ITS INTEGRATION 173
Indigenous people have culture. Colonial masters did not recognize this fact. It was believed that Africa, south
of Sahara, and north of the River Limpopo (the heartland of Igbo nation), was one universal den of waste,
misery, and desolation. They had no system of ethics and no principles of conduct (Otonti, 1964, p. 36). This
Eurocentric version of history notwithstanding, there were systems of ethics and principles of conduct which
formed the foundation of Igbo culture and civilization. Out of this matrix, Igbo traditional education developed
its objectives which gave rise to indigenous Igbo ideologies, namely:
(1) Communalism (Igbo socialism/extended family system);
(2) Utilitarianism (functional education);
(3) Conservatism (conservative socializing agencies/perennialism);
(4) Pragmatism (role preparation/skill acquisition);
(5) Totalitarianism (children learnt everything/i.e., holistic education).
Communalism
This is Igbo socialism/extended family system (Be your brothers keeper). To be your brothers keeper
is a basic norm in Igbo society. Extended family system is the authentic Igbo socialism not Russian socialism
or Chinese type. Igbo socialism is opposed to capitalism (Ejiofor, 2000, pp. 100-105). Some refer to Igbo
socialism as proto-socialism or proto-type of communism.
The purpose of capitalism is to create a happy society through exploitation, subjugation, and alienation.
Capitalists attitude infiltrated into Igbo society through colonialism.
Collective responsibility is a manifestation of Igbo socialism. Education is for the good of the community.
Riches and wealth are acquired for the good of all. Collective responsibility as opposed to the rugged
individualism of the Whiteman was Igbo tradition. Espirit de corps was cherished. No man was
self-sufficient. No man was an island. Every blood relation is a brother or sister. The idea of nephew or niece,
half-brother or half-sister is strange. The idea of grandmother or grandfather is basic in Igbo culture. This is
Igbo socialism, which needless to say is distributive, not acquisitive (Ejiofor, 2000, pp. 100-107). Wealth is
acquired to give help to less privileged relatives. It is strange to amass wealth in order to build personal political
or economic empire. Nobody wanted wealth in order to hand it over to others or gain political power. A rich
man acquired wealth in order to serve his brothers and sisters. The man who used his wealth to intimidate,
dominate, or subdue his relatives is despised. Education for the good of the community produced
public-spirited citizens of transparency and honesty.
Utilitarianism
Functional education or education for use not for ornamentation was upheld. There was no unemployment.
Vocationalization gave Igbo education job orientation. Apprenticeship system was another term for Igbo
education system.
Conservatism
This is education for promotion of cultural heritage. Eternal values were conserved. The family and elders
of the land were conservative socializing agencies. These were Igbo perennialists who viewed the unwritten
(hidden) curriculum as a package consisting of permanent studies which included spiritual values, human
values, and material values. They saw knowledge as fixed and permanent.
Induction into the society was by indoctrination. Desirable status quo was conserved. Ideological
-
8/12/2019 US-China Education Review 2013 3B
31/70
SCIENCE EDUCATION AND THE CHALLENGES FACING ITS INTEGRATION174
conformity was achieved.
Pragmatism
Role preparation through skill acquisition for successful adult life was a cultural universal in Igboland.
Practical training for adult life was cherished. Children were trained for future roles. Boy-child trained as futurefather. Girl-child trained as future mother. Mother-craft was part of skill acquisition.
Ability to perform productive tasks was valued more than producing a bookful blockhead with loads of
learned lumber in his head (described as a spurious inheritance of pure intellectualism).
Totalitarianism
Children learnt everything. Some Igbos called it Pan-Sophism. Others felt it was Holisticism (Nebonta,
2009, pp. 43-50; Ochitti, 2007, pp. 59-61). It was education for all-round efficiencymoral, spiritual, physical,
mental, economic, and political efficiency. No choice of subjects was allowed. However, elements of culture
were not lacking, viz.:
(1) Cultural universals: Core values (marriage, language, festivals, and ceremonies) were retained;
(2) Cultural specialties: These were professions like carving and smithery. Religions groups, priests, and
diviners specialize in fortune-telling. There were trading oligarchies. The Aros and Nri constitute the two
hegemonies in Igbolandthe Aro trading oligarchy and Nri ritual hegemony. Nri dominance and hegemony
was founded on the control of Igbo calendar, ritual and agricultural cycle. Nri is the centre of Igbo culture and
the cultural metropolis of Igboland. All Igbo culture came from Nri and Aro hegemony was based on
long-distance tradethe slaving oligarchy (18071927), bolstered up by a widely recognized Aro
oracleChukwu-Ibini-Ukpabi, and strong alliance with warlike neighbours with martial tradition, viz., Abam
Ohafia and Edda. With these warmongers, the Aro maintained commercial oligarchy and dominance in the
economic life of the Igbo and their neighbours. The blow-up and military overthrow of Chukwu-Ibini-Ukpabi
in the Aro expedition of 19011902 brought Aro hegemony to an end, even though the Aro struggled hard toretain their hegemony long after the famous Aro expedition (up to 1927);
(3) Cultural alternatives: There were likes and dislikes, fashions and fads, choice of diet, and alternative
ways of doing things.
The above five ideologies were rooted in three Igbo philosophies of lifemetaphysics, epistemology, and
axiology.
Igbo Metaphysics
Belief in life after death, Igbos are very religious. Ancestor worship is basic in Igbo cosmological
education. All the three aspect of metaphysics form part of the cosmological education, namely:
(1) Ontology: Belief in Supreme Being, God, the creator, or almighty god and pantheon of gods andgoddesses or minor gods/deities. They believe in reincarnation, witches, and wizards;
(2) Cosmology: Origin of the universe richly found in Igbo mythical charter was preserved in Nri corpus
of myths. Origin of Igbo market days and certain food crops constitute Igbo cosmology and worldview;
(3) Causality: Cause and effect relationship were amply elaborated. Nemesis, Karmic laws (retributive
justice) was taught through oral literaturefolktales, myths, and legends.
Epistemology
Igbo oral tradition/oral literature was the main source of knowledge. Oral literature could be divided into
-
8/12/2019 US-China Education Review 2013 3B
32/70
SCIENCE EDUCATION AND THE CHALLENGES FACING ITS INTEGRATION 175
three:
(1) Mythsconcerned with superhuman elementsactivities of gods and goddesses in human affairs;
(2) Legends: concerned with human elementsactivities of human heroescultural heroes and warlords;
(3) Folktale/folklore: concerned with ballads, proverbs, riddles, and poems.
Axiology
This is taught by presenting Igbo ethics, aesthetics, and political philosophy.
(1) Igbo ethics: Concerned with moral content of Igbo civilization. It is the Igbo moral philosophycode
of conduct and social norms. Three types of norms in Igbo culture:
(a) Folkwayssocial convention;
(b) Morestaboos;
(c) Lawlegal codes, rules, and regulations;
(2) Aesthetics: Concerned with principles of beauty and ugliness. Lay emphasis on Igbo arts and crafts,
rules of hygiene, use of cosmetics, cultural refinement, and general aesthetic awareness;
(3) Political philosophy
democratic gerontocracy.
The above is a basic outline on which Igbo pre-colonial education was made to revolve. It was on this
outline that Igbo science was rooted.
Igbo Science
Science is knowledge obtained by observation and testing of facts. It is empirical or sensory information
about the behaviour of natural and physical world-based on facts and figures which can be proved by
experiment. Igbo cosmological experience is filled with scientific knowledge as can be seen in the inventory of
Igbo science processes.
The above was the state of the art before the introduction of western education in Igboland on July 26,
1857, by Samuel Adjai Crowther, Simon Jonas, and Christopher Taylor of the CMS (Church MissionarySociety) Niger Mission.
The Advent of Western Education and Establishment of Schools
Igboland is found on both banks of the River Niger between Lokoja in the north and Bonny-Opobo in the
Niger Delta. Majority of Igbo people are living towards the east of the great River in Anambra, Imo, Abia,
Enugu, Ebonyi, and parts of Rivers State. These are the people of eastern Igboland. Igbos inhabiting the
western bank of the River Niger is called western Igbos or Ika Igbos. Cross River Igbos are the Aros and their
neighbours. Among the Igbos of southeast Nigeria, western education came along with the Niger Mission of
1857.
Specifically, the Niger Mission was launched from three axis (Afigbo, 1981, p. 338): the River Niger
Front, Bonny-Opobo axis, and the Cross River axis.
The River Niger Front
The Niger Mission dated back to July 26, 1857 when Dr. Baike, Bishop Adjai Crowther, and John
Christopher Taylor arrived at the palace of Obi Akazua of Onitsha for courtesy call and formal introduction.
Dr. Baike requested to open up a trading station. Bishop Adjai Crowther asked for a piece of land to
establish a mission station. The king welcomed them and granted their request. The agreement was sealed the
following day with gun salute. A piece of land few kilometers from Onitsha waterside known as slave market
-
8/12/2019 US-China Education Review 2013 3B
33/70
SCIENCE EDUCATION AND THE CHALLENGES FACING ITS INTEGRATION176
or slave beach was given to them to open up mission station.
The CMS Niger Mission took off in earnest. The first primary school in Onitsha was opened on Monday
November 15, 1858, with 14 girls between 10 to 16 years of age. All were naked. Taylor gave them clothes.
Boys showed no interest at all. Both day and night schools were opened by Taylor in 1864 for young slaves
who became the school pioneers. Day school had 50 pupils and night school had 70 pupils on roll. Boarding
house was maintained with funds from overseas charitable organizations. The most popular was Coral Fund
sponsored by Miss Barber Brighton of England (Ekechi, 1971, pp. 6-8, 17). The aim of the fund was to enable
the infant mission to maintain boarders at three pounds per child per year.
By 1864, attendance was 42 adults. In 1864, roll calls increased to 120fruit of six years labour. By 1867
after labouring for ten years, attendance jumped to 310.
The Niger Mission was reinforced on December 5, 1885, when two Holy Ghost MissionariesFather
Joseph Lutz and the newly-ordained Father Horne and brothers Hermas and JeanGotto arrived at Onitsha
waterside (Slave Beach). They were the pioneer Catholic Missionary team that comes to Onitsha to be ready to
work in Igboland on the eastern side of the Niger. Trade disputes and internecine rivalries had been in existencebetween French and British nationals operating on the Niger. This Anglo-French rivalry made it suspicious and
unsafe for any French man to be found on British area of influence.
It must be noted that on their way to the Lower Niger, they came across a kind-hearted protestant factory
agent at Brass by name Charles Townsend who brought them in his own motor boat to Onitsha. The small boat
was too small to take the four missionaries and their 70 pieces of luggage. For this reason, they hurriedly
presented themselves to the King of Onitsha Obi Anazonwu and they went back to Brass to collect the two
brothers and their luggage. On December 29, 1885, the four missionaries arrived safely at Onitsha.
In January 1886, the Fathers met the King and requested for a piece of land near Nkisi stream. This land
had already been given to Anglican Bishop Adjai Crowther. The King sent the missionaries to meet Bishop
Adjai Crowther who willingly surrendered the land to them:
I acquired this piece of land for Gods cause. Take it. This is the present site of Holy Trinity Cathedral
Onitsha, about 20 hectares of land as they requested.
This marked the climax of the Holy Ghost Missionary enterprise in the Lower Niger. With Holy Trinity as
the centre and node of diffusion and influence planting of Catholic Church in Igboland started. By 1889, Obosi,
Ossomari, Nsugbe, Umuoji, Atani, Odekpe, and Nkwelle had received pa