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UNIT EIGHT (A)
Exporting and Countertrade
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Objectives
An overview of foreign market entry strategies
Internationalization of the firm
Exporting as a foreign market entry strategy
Managing export-import transactions
Export-import financing
Identifying and working with foreign intermediaries
Countertrade: a popular approach for emerging markets
& developing economies
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Foreign Market Entry Strategies
• Importing or global sourcing: Procurement of products
and services from foreign sources
• Exporting: Producing products or services in one country
(often the producer’s home country), and selling and
distributing them to customers in other countries
• Countertrade: International transaction in which all or
partial payments are made in kind rather than cash
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• In contrast to home-based international operations
(e.g., exporting), foreign direct investment (FDI)
involves establishing a presence in the foreign market by
investing capital and securing ownership of a factory,
subsidiary, or other facility there
• Collaborative ventures include joint ventures in which
the firm makes similar equity investments abroad, but in
partnership with another company
Foreign Market Entry Strategies (cont.)
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• With licensing, the firm allows a foreign partner to use
its intellectual property in return for royalties or other
compensation
• Franchising is common in retailing.
McDonald’s, Dunkin’ Donuts, Century 21 Real Estate,
and many other firms have used franchising to
internationalize worldwide
Foreign Market Entry Strategies (cont.)
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Factors to Consider When Choosing a Foreign Market Entry Strategy
• Goals and objectives of the firm, such as desired
profitability, market share, or competitive positioning
• Degree of control desired regarding decisions,
operations, and assets involved in a venture
• The firm’s financial, organizational, and technological
resources and capabilities
• The types of risk inherent in each proposed foreign
venture
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• Characteristics of product/service offered
• Conditions in the target country, such as legal, cultural, and
economic circumstances, as well as distribution and
transportation systems
• Nature and extent of competition from existing rivals and from
firms that may enter the market later
• Availability and capabilities of partners in the market
Factors to Consider When Choosing Entry Strategy (cont.)
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Additional Factors to Consider
• The value-adding activities the firm is willing to perform in
the market and the activities it will delegate to local partners
• Long-term strategic importance of the market
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Classification of Entry Strategies
Based on Degree of Control for Focal Firms
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Strategies include:
• Low control – exporting, countertrade, and global
sourcing are all examples of ceding control to foreign
partners
• Moderate control – contractual relationships such as
licensing and franchising as well as product-based
collaborative ventures
Varieties of Control in Foreign Market Entry
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• High control – equity joint ventures and FDI are
examples here and reflect maximum control via the
establishment of a physical presence in the foreign
market
Varieties of Control in Foreign Market Entry
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• Push and pull factors serve as initial triggers.
Combination of triggers, inside and outside the firm, are
responsible for initial international expansion
• Initial internationalization may be accidental.
Expansion is often unplanned, or result of chance events
(e.g., meeting with foreign distributor)
Characteristics of Firm Internationalization
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Characteristics of Firm Internationalization
• Risk and return must be balanced. Managers
weigh potential returns of internationalization vs. the
initial costs, in terms of money, time, and other company
resources. International ventures typically take longer
than domestic ones to reach profitability
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• An ongoing learning experience. The firm’s
internationalization can stretch over many years and
involve many national settings, providing ample
opportunities for managers to learn and adapt how they
do business
Characteristics of Internationalization (cont.)
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Characteristics of Internationalization (cont.)
• Firms may evolve through stages of
internationalization. Historically, most firms have opted
for a gradual approach, partly due to limited resources
and partly due to lack of appropriate knowledge on how
to do international business
• However, recently some firms—born globals—have
internationalized quickly
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Typical Stages of Company Internationalization
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Overview of Exporting
• Usually the firm’s first foreign entry strategy
• Low risk, low cost, and flexible (b/c the firm can enter &
withdraw easily from markets)
• Popular among SMEs
• When we talk about trade, trade deficits, trade surpluses,
etc., we’re talking about exporting
• Most exports involve merchandise
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International Sales Intensity of Various U.S.-Based Industries
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Services Are Also Exported • In most adv. economies, services are largest component of
economic activity
• Examples: architecture, banking, insurance, entertainment, &
info
• However, many pure services cannot be exported because they
cannot be transported
• Retailers offer their services by establishing retail stores abroad
via FDI. Retailing requires direct contact with customers
• Overall, most services are delivered to foreign customers via
entry strategies other than exporting
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Advantages of Exporting
• Increase overall sales, improve market share, & generate
profit margins that are more favorable than in domestic
market
• Increase economies of scale, reducing per-unit costs
• Diversify customer base, reducing dependence on home
markets
• Stabilize fluctuations in sales associated with economic
cycles or seasonal demand
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Advantages of Exporting
• Minimize the cost of foreign market entry; the
firm can use exporting new markets before
committing greater FDI resources
• Minimize risk/maximize flexibility relative to
other entry strategies
• Leverage capabilities & skills of foreign
distributors & other partners located abroad
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Disadvantages of Exporting
• Compared to FDI, firm has fewer opportunities to learn
about customers, competitors, and the marketplace
• Requires firm to acquire new capabilities and redirect
organizational resources
• Sensitive to tariffs and other trade barriers
• Sensitive to exchange rate fluctuations
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A Systematic Approach to Exporting
Devise needed
on-the-ground
tactics; adapt
products and
marketing as
needed
Screen for the most
attractive markets;
identify qualified
distributors;
estimate industry
market potential
and company sales
potential
Assess firm’s
resource needs;
establish
timetable for
achieving export
goals; decide on
distribution
strategy
Acquire new abilities
in such areas as
product
development,
logistics, finance,
contracts, currency
management, foreign
languages, and cross-
cultural skills
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• Indirect exporting: Contracting with an intermediary,
often an export management company or a trading
company, in the firm’s home country to perform all export
functions; common among firms new to exporting
• Direct exporting: Contracting with intermediaries, such as
distributors or agents, in the foreign market to perform
export functions; perform downstream value-chain
activities in the target market
Organizing for Exporting
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• Company-owned foreign subsidiary: Similar to direct
exporting, except the exporter owns the foreign
intermediation operation; the most advanced option
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Export Management
• Firm implements and manages its export strategy
• Product adaptation may be necessary – may need to
change product features to fit local tastes
• Marketing communications adaptation – modifying
advertising, selling style, or more
• Price competitiveness – keep foreign pricing in line with
that of competitors
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Importing
• When the firm chooses to buy products & services from
foreign sources & bring them to home market
• Manufacturing firms import raw materials & parts for
assembling finished products
• Retailers such as Walmart, Lowes, and Target are among
the largest importers in the U.S.
• By itself, Walmart is responsible for approx. 10% of U.S.
imports from China (over $20 billion/year)
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Managing Transactions: Export Documentation
The official forms and other paperwork required to transport
exported goods and clear customs.
• Quotation or pro forma invoice: Issued on request to
advise a potential buyer about the price and description of
the exporter’s product or service
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Managing Transactions: Export Documentation
• Commercial invoice: Actual demand for payment
issued by the exporter when a sale is concluded
• Bill of lading: Basic contract between exporter and
shipper; authorizes the shipping company to transport the
goods to the buyer’s destination
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Export Documentation (cont.)
• Shipper's export declaration - Lists the contact
information of the exporter and buyer, full description,
declared value, and destination of the products being
shipped; used by governments to collect statistics
• Certificate of origin - The "birth certificate" of the goods,
showing country where the product originated
• Insurance certificate - Protects the exported goods
against damage, loss, pilferage, and, sometimes, delay
• License – a permission to export
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Incoterms (International Commerce Terms)
• A system of universal, standard terms of sale and
delivery
• Commonly used in international sales contracts &
price lists to specify how buyer and seller share
freight & insurance costs, and at which point the
buyer takes title to the goods
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Examples of INCOTERMS
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Methods of Payment METHOD ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Cash in Advance Best for the seller Risky from the buyer’s
standpoint, and unpopular;
tends to discourage sales
Letter of Credit A contract between the
banks of the buyer and the
seller. Largely risk-free, it
helps establish instant trust.
Requires following a strict
protocol, specified in the
contract; can involve much
paperwork and long set of
sequential steps
Open Account Easy for exporter, who
simply bills the buyer, who
is expected to pay at agreed
future time
Risky unless there is strong
established relationship
between exporter and buyer
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Four key factors determine cost of financing for export sales
Creditworthiness of the exporter
Creditworthiness of the importer
Riskiness of the sale
Timing of the sale
Import-Export Financing
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Sources of Export Financing
• Commercial banks – same banks that finance domestic
business can often do the same for exports
• Factoring, Forfaiting, & Confirming
– Factoring: the discounting of a foreign account receivable
by transferring title of the sold item (& it’s acct. receivable)
to a factoring house at a discount over face value
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Sources of Export Financing
– Forfaiting: the discount selling of long-term accounts
receivable of seller or promissory notes of foreign buyer
– Confirming: a financial service in which an
independent company confirms an export order in
seller’s country & makes payment for those goods in
that country’s currency
• Distribution channel intermediaries – these representatives
can often provide funding in addition to their other
functions
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• Buyers & Suppliers – foreign buyer down payments can
reduce need for financing
• Intracorporate financing – large MNE’s can provide
many sources of funds for financing export sales of its
subsidiaries
Sources of Export Financing (cont.)
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Sources of Export Financing (cont.)
• Government assistance programs – Numerous
government agencies offer programs to help exports (e.g.,
Export-Import Bank, Small Business Administration)
• Multilateral Development Banks (MDB’s) – international
financial institutions owned by several governments that
promote economic progress in part by funding assistance
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Sources of Information to Identify Potential Intermediaries • Country and regional business directories such as
Kompass (Europe), Bottin International (worldwide),
Japanese Trade Directory, and Foreign Yellow Pages
• Trade associations such as the National Furniture
Manufacturers Association or the National Association of
Automotive Parts Manufacturers
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• Government ministries and agencies such as Austrade in
Australia, Export Development Canada, and the U.S.
Department of Commerce
• Commercial attachés in embassies and consulates abroad
• Branch offices of government agencies located in
exporter’s country, such as the Japan External Trade
Organization
Sources of Information to Identify Potential Intermediaries
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Working with Foreign Intermediaries
• Exporter relies on intermediaries for much of marketing,
physical distribution, & customer service activities in the
export market
• The exporter should cultivate mutually beneficial,
bonding relations; respond to the intermediary’s needs;
demonstrate commitment; and build trust
• Intermediaries prefer handling good,
profitable products, and desire various
types of support
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Foreign Intermediaries’ Expectations for Exporters
• Good, reliable products for which there is a ready
market
• Products that provide significant profits
• Opportunities to handle other product lines
• Support for marketing communications, advertising, &
product warranties
• A non-burdensome payment method
• Training for their staff in exporter’s methods
• Help establishing after-sales service
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Criteria for Evaluating Export Intermediaries
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Common Dispute Areas With Intermediaries
• Compensation arrangements
• Pricing practices
• Advertising and promotion practices and the extent of
advertising support
• After-sales service
• Return policies
• Adequate inventory levels
• Incentives for promoting new products
• Adapting the product for local customers
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Countertrade
• An international business transaction in which all or
partial payments are made in kind rather than cash;
similar to barter. Used when conventional means of
payment are difficult, costly, or nonexistent
• Accounts for between 10% and 33% of all world trade
• Common in large-scale government procurement &
governments may mandate countertrade (“I’ll buy your
product if you buy mine”)
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• Barter: Goods are directly exchanged without the transfer of
any money
• Compensation deal: Payment in goods and cash
• Counterpurchase: Entails two distinct contracts
• In the first, the seller agrees to a set price for goods and
receives cash from the buyer
• In the second, the seller agrees to purchase goods from the
buyer
Types of Countertrade
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• Buy-back agreement: Seller agrees to supply technology or
equipment to construct a facility and receives payment in the
form of goods it produces
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Examples of Countertrade
• Boeing traded aircraft for oil in Saudi Arabia
• Caterpillar received caskets in Colombia and wine in
Algeria in exchange for earth-moving equipment
• Goodyear traded tires for minerals, textiles, & agricultural
products.
• Coca-Cola received tomato paste from Turkey, oranges
from Egypt, and beer from Poland in exchange for Coke
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Risks of Countertrade
1. Goods offered by customer may be inferior, limiting
sale potential
2. Difficult to put market value on these goods b/c they’re
often commodities or low-quality manufactured
products that buyer can’t inspect ahead of time
3. Both parties will ‘pad’ their prices, expecting the other
to do the same
4. Countertrade involves complex deals that are time-
consuming to put together and then value
5. Government rules can make countertrade bureaucratic
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Why Consider Countertrade?
• Because in some cases, the alternative is no trade at all (esp.
if a government mandates
• It can help firm get a foothold in new markets & thereby
develop new customer relationships
• Many firms use countertrade to also develop new supply
sources
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• It can be used as a way to repatriate profits that are
somehow blocked in a foreign subsidiary
• Firms may be able to set up separate divisions that can be
used to develop global managers who are entrepreneurial,
innovative, and knowledgeable about tradable goods and
commodities
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