Download - Unit 4: Motivation and Emotion (Week 5)
CHAPTER
8 Motivation and Emotion
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Diversity-UniversalityDiversity-
Universality
Stability-ChangeStability-Change
Mind-BodyMind-Body
Nature-NurtureNature-Nurture
Person-SituationPerson-Situation
Enduring Issues
How do motives and emotions affect behavior, and how are they affected by the external environment?
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Diversity-UniversalityDiversity-
Universality
Stability-ChangeStability-Change
Mind-BodyMind-Body
Nature-NurtureNature-Nurture
Person-SituationPerson-Situation
Enduring Issues
Are motives and emotions inborn or acquired?
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Diversity-UniversalityDiversity-
Universality
Stability-ChangeStability-Change
Mind-BodyMind-Body
Nature-NurtureNature-Nurture
Person-SituationPerson-Situation
Enduring Issues
Do motives and emotions change significantly over the life span?
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Copyright ©Pearson Education 2013
Diversity-UniversalityDiversity-
Universality
Stability-ChangeStability-Change
Mind-BodyMind-Body
Nature-NurtureNature-Nurture
Person-SituationPerson-Situation
Enduring Issues
To what extent do individuals differ in their motivations and emotions?
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Diversity-UniversalityDiversity-
Universality
Stability-ChangeStability-Change
Mind-BodyMind-Body
Nature-NurtureNature-Nurture
Person-SituationPerson-Situation How do motives and emotions arise from, and in turn affect, biological processes?
Enduring Issues
Specific need or desire, such as hunger, thirst, or achievement, that prompts goal-directed behavior otive
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Feeling, such as
fear, joy, or
surprise, that
underlies behavior
motion
Perspectives on Motivation
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LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Compare and contrast instincts, drive-reduction theory, and arousal theory (including the Yerkes-Dodson law) as explanations of human behavior. Distinguish between primary and secondary drives, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and summarize Maslow’s hierarchy of motives.
Instincts
Instinct theory was popular in the early 20th century, but was ultimately disputed because:• Most important human
behavior is learned.
• Human behavior is rarely rigid, inflexible, unchanging, and common to all, as is the case with instincts.
• Ascribing every conceivable human behavior to a corresponding instinct explains nothing.
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Drive Reduction Theory
Need: Requirement of material (e.g., food, water) essential for survival
Drive: Need creates state of tension or arousal
Drive-reduction theory: Attempts to reduce the unpleasant state of tension and return the organism to homeostasis
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Primary drives: Unlearned drives that are based on a physiological state
Secondary drives: Learned drives that are not based on a physiological state
Primary and Secondary Drives
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Arousal Theory
Behavior stems from the desire to maintain an
optimum level of arousal
Sometimes level of arousal
is reduced.
Other times level of arousal
is increased.
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Arousal Theory
Yerkes-Dodson law: The more complex the task, the lower the level of arousal that can be tolerated before performance deteriorates
Simple task = increase level of arousal Complex task = reduce level of arousal
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Sensation Seeking
• Thrill-seeking behavior• Not explained by arousal
theory• Zuckerman: A basic
motivation, some aspects of which are inherited and neurologically based
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Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic motivation: A desire to perform a behavior that stems from the enjoyment derived from the behavior itself
Extrinsic motivation: A desire to perform a behavior to obtain an external reward or avoid punishment
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A Hierarchy of Motives
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: Higher motives only emerge after lower level motives are satisfied
Physiological Needs
Safety Needs
Belongingness Needs
Esteem Needs
Self-Actualization Needs
Source: Adapted from Motivation and Personality by Abraham H. Maslow. Copyright © 1970. Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ
Hunger and Thirst
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Biological and Emotional Factors
Hunger and thirst are influenced by:
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Identify the areas of the brain that are involved in hunger and describe the role of glucose, leptin, and ghrelin in determining a biological need for food. Distinguish between the biological need for food and the experience of hunger (including the role of incentives).
Internal cues
External cues
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Biological Factors
Hunger is stimulated internally through the brain’s complex monitoring of:• Fats
• Carbohydrates
• Glucose (a simple sugar)
• Various hormones
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Incentives (i.e. cooking aromas)
Emotional factors
Cultural factors
Social factors
Other Factors that Stimulate Hunger
11
22
33
44
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Eating Disorders and Obesity
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: List the symptoms that are used to diagnose anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, muscle dysmorphia, and obesity. Describe the people who are most likely to develop these disorders and the most likely causes of them.
Anorexia nervosa • Approximately 1% of
adolescents suffer from anorexia nervosa.
• About 90% of them are white upper- or middle-class females.
• Over 10% of those with anorexia nervosa die as a result of the disorder.
Bulimia nervosa • Approximately 1-2%
of all adolescent females have bulimia nervosa.
• Upper- and middle-class women are most at-risk.
Muscle dysmorphia • It is more common
in young males.
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Obesity
• Obesity has increased more than 50% in the last decade.
• More than two-thirds of Americans are overweight or obese.
• The obesity statistics for American youth are displayed to the right.
• There really is no “quick fix” for weight loss.
• Our bodies appear to be genetically “set” to maintain a certain weight.
– Set-point theory
Applying Psychology
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The Slow (but Lasting)
Fix for Weight Gain1. Check with your doctor before
you start to make sure your weight loss program will be safe.
2. Increase your body’s metabolism through regular exercise.
3. Modify your diet.
4. Reduce external cues that encourage you to eat undesirable foods.
5. Set realistic goals.
6. Reward yourself – in ways unrelated to food – for small improvements.
Sex
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Sexual motivation is
similar to, and different from, other primary
drives.
Biological Factors
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe how sexual motivation is both similar to and different from other primary drives. Identify the factors (biological and nonbiological) that affect sexual motivation.
SimilarSex is considered a primary drive because it is unlearned and is a physiological state.
DifferentSex is vital only to the survival of the species, not to the survival of the individual.
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Biological Factors
Testosterone (the primary male sex hormone)– Baseline levels associated with frequency of sexual
behavior/satisfaction in males and females
Pheromones– Some evidence that they are secreted in the sweat
glands of the armpits and in the genitals– May influence sexual attraction
Brain– Limbic system and insula: involved in sexual
excitement
Sexual response cycle– Typical sequence of events characterizing sexual
response in males and females
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Sexual Response Cycle
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the sexual response cycle and how it differs formen and women. Briefly explain what is meant by the statement that “research indicates that the sex lives of most Americans differ significantly from media portrayals.”
1. Excitement: Beginning of arousal
2. Plateau: Physical changes continue
3. Orgasm: Rhythmic contractions in vagina/penis muscles; male ejaculates
4. Resolution: Final phase, body returned to normal state• Refractory period: Time period when males
cannot have another orgasm
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Cultural and Environmental Factors
Human sexual motivation is much more dependent on experience and learning than on biology.
• Sight and smell• Moral beliefs• Culture of origin• Age• Gender equality
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Michael, Gagnon, Laumann, & Kolata (1994) study of 3,432 people aged 18-59.
Patterns of Sexual Behavior Among AmericansPatterns of Sexual Behavior Among Americans
Twice a week or more:
about 1/3
A few times a month: 1/3
A few times a year or not
at all: 1/3
Approx. 15 minutes
Vaginal intercourse:
over 90%
Married couples: more
satisfied and had sex more often than unmarried
persons (see also Waite
& Joyner, 2001)
Males: 6
Females: 2
17% of the men, 3% of the women: sex with over 20
partners
Men: about 25%
Women: about 15%
Average duration of intercourse
Average duration of intercourse
Median number of
partners over the lifetime
Median number of
partners over the lifetime
Percentage who
committed adultery
Percentage who
committed adultery
Frequency of sex
Frequency of sex
Preferred form of sexPreferred
form of sex
Satisfaction with sex lifeSatisfaction with sex life
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Gender Differences in Sexuality
Men• Men are more
interested in sex than are women.
• Aggression, power, dominance, and assertiveness are more closely linked to sex among men than among women.
Women• Women are more
likely than men to link sex to a close, committed relationship.
• Women’s sexuality is more open to change over time.
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Sexual Orientation
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Summarize the research evidence for and against a biological basis for sexual orientation.
What determines sexual orientation?
NaturePrimarily influenced by genetics
NurtureA result of early learning and socialization
CombinationLikely explanation probably involves a combination of the two
Other Important Motives
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Other Important Motives
• Stimulus motives: Unlearned motives that prompt us to explore or change the world around us– Exploration– Curiosity– Manipulation– Contact
• Aggression• Achievement • Affiliation
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Exploration and Curiosity
• Sparked by the new and unknown
• Directed toward no more specific goal other than “finding out”
• Not unique to humans
• Disagreement about the nature and causes of curiosity
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Briefly describe the major stimulus motives: exploration, curiosity, manipulation, and contact.
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Manipulation and Contact
• Limited to primates, who have agile fingers and toes
• Manipulation: An active process
• Contact: Can be either active or passive
• Harlow (1958) and Harlow & Zimmerman (1959): Studies with monkeys demonstrating the human need for contact
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Aggression
Behavior aimed at doing harm to others; also, the motive to behave aggressively
Theories:• Innate drive
• A vestige of our evolutionary past that is triggered by pain or frustration
• Social learning
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the role of learning as a determinant of aggression including evidence for gender and cultural differences in aggressive behavior.
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Aggression: Culture and Gender
• Collectivist societies have lower levels of aggression.
• Across cultures, males at every age are more aggressive than females.
• Higher levels of aggression in males may be due to socialization as well as biological factors.
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Achievement
Achievement motive: The need to excel and to overcome obstacles
Three separate but interrelated achievement-oriented behaviors:• Work orientation• Mastery • Competitiveness: Tends to
interfere with achievement
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Identify the components of achievement behavior and the characteristics of people who are high in achievement motivation. Explain the factors that affect the affiliation motive and the likelihood that a person will express their need for affiliation.
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Affiliation
Affiliation motive: The need to be with others
• Common to humans and likely to be especially strong when people feel threatened
• Has an evolutionary basis according to some theorists
• Expression of need depends on a number of factors
Emotions
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Fear
Surprise
Disgust
Anger
Sadness
Anticipation
Joy
Acceptance
Plutchik’s Eight Basic Emotions
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Discuss the evidence for a set of basic emotions that are experienced by all humans.
Basic Emotions
11
22
33
44
55
66
77
88
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Primary and Secondary Emotions
Primary emotions • Are evident in all
cultures • Contribute to survival • Are associated with
distinct facial expressions
• Are evident in nonhuman primates
Secondary emotions• Are subtle combinations
of primary emotions• Are not found in all
cultures
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Stimuli cause physiological changes in our bodies, and emotions result from those physiological changes.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Compare and contrast the James-Lange theory, Cannon-Bard theory, and cognitive theories of emotion.
Theories of Emotion
Cognitive theoriesCognitive theories
Cannon-Bard theoryCannon-Bard theory
James-Lange theoryJames-Lange theory
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The experience of emotion occurs simultaneously with biological changes.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Compare and contrast the James-Lange theory, Cannon-Bard theory, and cognitive theories of emotion.
Theories of Emotion
Cognitive theoriesCognitive theories
Cannon-Bard theoryCannon-Bard theory
James-Lange theoryJames-Lange theory
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Emotional experience depends on one’s perception or judgment of a situation.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Compare and contrast the James-Lange theory, Cannon-Bard theory, and cognitive theories of emotion.
Theories of Emotion
Cognitive theoriesCognitive theories
Cannon-Bard theoryCannon-Bard theory
James-Lange theoryJames-Lange theory
Communicating Emotion
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LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Explain the importance of facial expressions in communicating emotion and identify the areas of the brain that are responsible for interpreting facial expressions. Describe the role of body language, gestures, and personal space in communicating emotions.
• We convey more emotional information in the way we express words, not in the words we use.
• Facial expression seems to communicate the most among nonverbal channels of communication.
• Evolutionary psychologists believe that facial expression served an adaptive function, enabling our ancestors to compete for status, win mates, and defend themselves.
Voice Quality and Facial Expression
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How the Brain Reads the Face
• Activity in the amgydala and insula in the brain are critical for the release of emotions.
• These same areas of the brain also play an important role in our ability to correctly interpret facial expressions.
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Body Language, Personal Space, and Gestures
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Gender and Emotion
Men and women:• Don’t necessarily differ in their
physiological experience of emotion• May react to the same situation with
very different emotions
Women:• Are more likely to express their
emotions than men• Are more likely to express emotions
strongly and seek help
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Summarize the research evidence regarding gender and cultural differences in emotion, the role of “display rules,” and whether it is advantageous to express anger as opposed to “holding it in.”
Gender
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Culture and Emotion
• Universalist position: The face looks the same across cultures for specific emotions.
• Culture-learning position:Members of a culture learn the appropriate facial expressions for emotions.
• Display rules: Culture-specific rules that govern how, when, and why expressions of emotion are appropriate.
Culture
Acknowledgments
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4 fancy house ©istockphoto.com/Andrea Hill
5 girl crying ©istockphoto.com/Jesus Ayala
5 depressed teenager ©istockphoto.com/Aldo Murillo
6 happy woman ©istockphoto.com/bo1982
6 sad woman ©istockphoto.com/Silver Spiral Arts
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7 neck pain ©istockphoto.com/Martin Novak
8 woman rock climbing ©istockphoto.com/Greg Epperson
9 man and baby ©istockphoto.com/Barbara Sauder
11 girl chewing fingers: fear ©istockphoto.com/jlmatt
11 woman with hands over face: shame ©istockphoto.com/Soubrette
11 child: shyness ©istockphoto.com/elkor
12 child drinking water ©istockphoto.com/VARDHAN
12 person rock climbing ©istockphoto.com/Greg Epperson
13 head ©istockphoto.com/Angel Herrero de Frutos
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13 food - burger & fries ©istockphoto.com/Adolfo Lazo
14 young woman dancing happily ©istockphoto.com/Justin Horrocks
14 young woman sleeping happily ©istockphoto.com/Justin Horrocks
15 Figure 8.1: The Yerkes-Dodson law Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 261
16 snowboarder ©istockphoto.com/Ben Blankenburg
17 girl on swing ©istockphoto.com/HooRoo Graphics
17 doctor giving child candy ©istockphoto.com/killerb10
18 Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Adapted from Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 262
20 hungry ©istockphoto.com/Neil Wysocki
20 bowl ©istockphoto.com/Jill Chen
20 dish of noodles ©istockphoto.com/Jamesmcq24
21 Figure 8.3: Physiological factors regulating appetite and body weight
Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 264
22 cooking ©istockphoto.com/Sean Locke
22 icon: wanted sign Charlie Levin, adapting wooden board image from ©istockphoto.com/andynwt
24 Figure 8.4: Rising obesity among American youth Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 267
25 person exercising ©istockphoto.com/Overprint
25 scrap of paper ©istockphoto.com/Trevor Hunt
29 sex feet arousal ©istockphoto.com/Rapid Eye Media
29 sex feet climax ©istockphoto.com/Rapid Eye Media
29 sex feet post ©istockphoto.com/Niko Guido
30 Figure 10.3 From Ciccarelli, Psychology, 2/e p. 409
Figure 10.4 From Ciccarelli, Psychology, 2/e p. 409
31 woman jumping into a man's arms ©istockphoto.com/Yuri Arcurs
32 Figure 8.6: Frequency of sexual behavior around the world Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 271
34 restroom doors - gender symbols ©istockphoto.com/k-libre
37 kid looking at bug ©istockphoto.com/Barssé
37 girl reaching for soda ©istockphoto.com/maska82
37 punch through wall ©istockphoto.com/Sami Suni
37 girl raising her hand ©istockphoto.com/bonniej graphic design
37 Singapore swim class ©istockphoto.com/arturbo
38 cat looking around a door ©istockphoto.com/tirc83
38 kid looking at bug ©istockphoto.com/Barssé
39 girl reaching for soda ©istockphoto.com/maska82
40 punch through wall ©istockphoto.com/Sami Suni
41 globe w/ flags ©istockphoto.com/Stay Media Productions
41 silhouettes - hate fighting TrapdoorMedia
42 girl raising her hand ©istockphoto.com/bonniej graphic design
43 Singapore swim class ©istockphoto.com/arturbo
45 Figure 8.7: Plutchik's eight basic emotions Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 279
46 crowd ©istockphoto.com/adisa
47 Figure 8.10: James-Lange Theory Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 281
48 Figure 8.10: Canon-Bard Theory Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 281
49 Figure 8.10: Cognitive Theory Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 281
51 icon: helmet ©istockphoto.com/Li Shen Jun
51 couple hugging ©istockphoto.com/ODonnell Photograf
52 Illustration: profile with brain From Ciccarelli, Psychology, 2/e p. 70
53 little girl hugging and kissing little boy ©istockphoto.com/Nicolesy, Inc. | Nicole S. Young
53 couple in kitchen ©istockphoto.com/Denis Raev
53 couple on couch ©istockphoto.com/Lev Olkha
54 woman expressing feelings to a man ©istockphoto.com/Lokibaho
55 woman facial expressions ©istockphoto.com/ZoneCreative
56 Open Your Book - textbook cover Shutterstock
56 Open Your Book - textbook background From Ciccarelli, Psychology, 1/e pp. 213-214
56 Open Your Book - open textbook From Ciccarelli, Psychology, 1/e pp. 114-115
58 topbar: cactus ©istockphoto.com/Lee Daniels
58 topbar: wooden board ©istockphoto.com/andynwt
58 text messaging ©iStockphoto.com/Freeze Frame Studio, Inc.
59 topbar: helmets ©istockphoto.com/Li Shen Jun
59 topbar: athletic field ©istockphoto.com/Jamie Otterstetter
60 tabletop of stationery ©istockphoto.com/Stuart Burford