Towards Community Monitoring of Rivers in Malaysia
Chris Funtera
Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree
Bachelor of Environmental Science (Honours)
School of Geography and Environmental Science
Monash University
ii
Abstract
Resource shortfalls and a lack of political willingness in developing regions can
restrict efforts to conduct appropriate environmental monitoring and evaluation required to
form the basis of effective management and decision-making. Community monitoring
provides a potential pathway to involve the public in management of natural areas, whilst
also increasing environmental awareness and fostering a sense of ownership.
In Malaysia, the availability of water has become an important issue in recent
years. Population growth, urbanization and industrialization are imposing rapidly
increasing demands and pressure on water resources. Surface water in the form of streams
and rivers contributes 98% of Malaysia‟s water supply, and increasing organic and
inorganic water pollution threatens future water supply and Malaysia‟s plans for further
development. The lack of education and awareness of the general public about water
resources is a key factor that has led to the state of Malaysia‟s overall water quality.
Therefore, community monitoring may provide a useful tool in rehabilitating and
managing Malaysia‟s degraded waterways.
The potential of community monitoring was investigated by implementing a
biological monitoring program in a Malaysian high school and comparing the results with
professional assessments, in order to assess issues with data accuracy and reliability. In
addition, an established community monitoring program was analysed and program
managers consulted and interviewed on their views and experiences. Results show that
community monitoring can provide crucial information on river health, educational
opportunities for schools and the wider community and an opportunity for communities to
become involved in natural resource management. However, if community collected data
is to be used to inform management and decision-making, volunteer protocols need to be
reinforced with standard data validation techniques.
Keywords: Volunteer monitoring, macroinvertebrate monitoring, biological monitoring,
Malaysia Rivers, Malaysia Water Resources, Malaysia‟s Water Vision
iii
Acknowledgments
Acknowledging and thanking those who have helped me to undertake this project
is more difficult than I thought. I hope I have shown gratitude to all those who have
assisted me, but here I have a chance to recognize you more formally.
I am extremely grateful to Dr Catherine Yule for giving me the opportunity to work on
this project which has been an incredible experience for me. Thank you for all your
guidance, encouragement and making yourself available even when time was limited.
I had a wonderful time working with Kenny Peavy, Mark Walsh and all of the kids from
Grade 7 at the International School of Kuala Lumpur. Thank you for all of your
enthusiasm and your contribution to this project.
Thank you to Shafinaz Shahabudin, Regina Cheah and Dr Kalithasan Kailasam and
everyone from the Global Environment Centre for your great work and allowing me to
include it in this project.
Thank you to Jing Khor Tien and Meaghan Raymond for your contribution to this project
and help in the field.
To all the students in the Monash Malaysia science laboratories, thank you for your
generous spirit with which you welcomed me and assisted me with my project. I
especially would like to thank everyone who accompanied me on field trips.
To all the wonderful people I met during my time in Malaysia who made it such an
enriching experience. Terima Kasih.
Finally, I would like to thank the enduring support of all my friends and family who have
read my drafts, made me endless cups of coffee and provided a much needed distraction
when needed. Thank you.
Cover Photo: Kanching Falls, supplied by Tan Kian Yong
iv
STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP
This thesis contains no material which has previously been submitted as a
requirement for the award of a degree or diploma within this, or any other institution. This
thesis is entirely my own work. It contains no material which has been previously written
or published by another person, except where this is referenced within the text.
I understand that the work submitted may be reproduced and/or communicated by the
University or a third party authorized by the University for the purpose of detecting
plagiarism.
Date:
………………………........................
Signed:
……………………………........................
Chris Funtera
v
Table of Contents
Abstract ii
Acknowledgements iii
Declaration iv
Table of Contents v
List of Tables viii
List of Figures ix
List of Abbreviation of Terms xi
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
Objectives 2
Thesis Outline 3
Research Design 4
Chapter 2: Rivers and Water Resources in Malaysia 6
Introduction 6
Water Resources in Malaysia 6
Rivers in Malaysia 9
Malaysia‟s Water Vision 14
Conclusion 17
Chapter 3: Community Monitoring 18
Introduction 18
Community Involvement in Environmental Management 18
Community Monitoring 19
Benefits of Community Monitoring 20
Limitations of Community Monitoring 23
Community Monitoring and the Malaysian Water Vision 24
Conclusion
25
vi
Chapter 4: Implementation of a Macroinvertebrate Monitoring Program 26
Introduction 26
Biological Monitoring 26
Biological Monitoring in Malaysia 27
Monitoring Methods 28
Volunteer Monitoring 32
Materials and Methods 36
Study Site 36
Professional Sampling Protocol 39
School Sampling Protocol 40
Participant Questionnaire 41
Data Analysis 42
Results 45
Environmental Parameters 45
Invertebrate Monitoring 46
Biological Metrics 47
Student Awareness and Knowledge 54
Discussion 56
Professional Monitoring 56
Comparing School and Professional Assessments 57
Sources of Inaccuracy 58
Shortfalls of Chemical Monitoring 60
Participant Awareness and Knowledge 60
Modifications to Improve Monitoring Program 61
Conclusion 62
vii
Chapter 5: Community Management and Monitoring of Kelana Jaya Lakes 63
Introduction 63
Kelana Jaya Lake 63
Pollution Problems 64
Management 65
Project 65
Planning and Design 65
Community Monitoring and Evaluation 67
Achievements 69
Challenges and Lessons Learned 70
Conclusion 73
Chapter 6: Conclusions 74
Recommendations 76
Study Limitations 76
References 77
Appendix I – Student Questionnaire 84
Appendix II – Kelana Jaya Lake Report Card 85
Appendix III – Explanatory Statement 86
Appendix IV – Consent Form 87
viii
List of tables
Table Title Page
Table 2.1 Water Resources in Malaysia.
6
Table 4.1 Description of Sampling Sites.
38
Table 4.2 Environmental parameters measured at each study site.
39
Table 4.3 Biological metrics used to compare professional and school
samples.
43
Table 4.4 Classification of invertebrates based on pollution sensitivity.
44
Table 4.5 Chemical and physical characteristics of selected sites along
Sungai Ampang.
45
Table 4.6 Summary of invertebrate monitoring results.
46
Table 4.7 Variation of invertebrate communities between sites in
professional monitoring.
47
ix
List of Figures
Figure Title Page
Figure 2.1 River basins water quality trend 1997 – 2007
13
Figure 4.1 Map of Malaysia
37
Figure 4.2 Map of Taman TAR
37
Figure 4.3 A – Mean species richness per 20cm2 of professional
monitoring (± 1 SE, n = 10). B – Total taxa richness of
school monitoring per site.
48
Figure 4.4 A – Mean EPT (Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera)
abundance per 20cm2 area of professional monitoring (± 1
SE, n = 10). B – Total EPT abundance per site of school
monitoring.
49
Figure 4.5 A – Mean degree of dominance (proportion of three most
abundant taxa species/ 20cm2) of professional monitoring.
B – Degree of dominance of school monitoring.
50
Figure 4.6 A – Mean proportion of tolerant tax per 20cm2
area of
professional monitoring. B – Proportion of tolerant taxa per
site of school monitoring.
51
Figure 4.7 A – Mean becks biotic index score per 20cm2 of
professional monitoring. B – Becks biotic index score per
site of school monitoring.
52
x
Figure 4.8 Distribution of invertebrate pollution classes of A –
professional monitoring and B – school monitoring.
53
Figure 4.9 School student‟s awareness of river issues before the
monitoring program. B - awareness after completing the
monitoring program.
54
Figure 4.10 A – School student‟s knowledge of rivers and river health
before the monitoring program. B -awareness after
completing the monitoring program.
55
Figure 5.1 Civic science approach to community engagement. 70
xi
List of Abbreviations
FoKJ Friends of Kelana Jaya Lake Park
% Percentage
ANOVA Analysis of Variance
BCM Billion Cubic Meters
cm centimetre
Df Degree of Freedom
DID Malaysian Department of Irrigation and Drainage
E East
EPT Invertebrate orders Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera
EPU Economic Planning Unit
GEC Global Environment Centre
GEF Global Environment Facility
IWRM Integrated Water Resources Management
LA21 Local Agenda 21
m metre
MCM Million Cubic Meters
MPPJ Petaling Jaya Municipal Council
MWP Malaysian Water Partnership
N North
NWRC National Water Resources Council
ppm parts per million
SE Standard Error
Sg. Sungai (river)
α Alpha
F F-test value
n Number of replicates
P probability
1
Chapter 1 - Introduction
Water has played a significant role in Malaysia‟s development process, providing
the country with sufficient supply to cover all needs. The situation is however changing,
as the country continues to develop and the population continues to increase, the pressure
on the water resources increases with great impact on the quality and quantity of the water.
Rapid industrial and infrastructural development has contributed to increased organic and
inorganic pollution of Malaysia‟s freshwater resources. The surface water from streams
and rivers contribute approximately 98% of raw water for public water supply, therefore
the availability and quality of the water is of major importance, both for ecosystems and
human consumption.
In a response to deteriorating water quality and supply problems, the „Malaysia
Water Vision 2025‟ was launched in 2001 by the Malaysian Water Partnership (a non-
governmental organisation that advises government and stakeholders on the management
of water resources). It is a progressive policy designed to take Malaysia from where it is
today, to where the country needs to be in the future in order to meet future water demands
and ensure sustainable water use. It outlines many ambitious goals and sets a vision for
future water management. The vision also recognises the importance of rivers and sets an
ambitious target of lowering water pollution and restoring rivers back to a healthy, natural
condition. Implementation of the vision thus far has been underwhelming. The vision
lacks concrete proposals for action with targets or milestones.
Community monitoring programs such as Waterwatch in Australia and Adopt-a-
Stream in the US have been implemented successfully in developed countries and hold
great potential for use in management of Malaysia‟s rivers. Community monitoring is
distinct from formal professional monitoring as it is carried out at a local scale, by
community members with no or limited science training. It has the ability to build
community awareness and understanding of local water issues, and provide crucial
information on river health. Community monitoring may provide an essential
management tool towards restoring Malaysia‟s degraded rivers and achieving Malaysia‟s
Water Vision.
2
Objectives
The project aims to examine the potential of community monitoring to become an
effective management tool of rivers and water resources in Malaysia. The benefits for
both participants and management outcomes will be identified, as well as the challenges
which confront the widespread adoption of the practice. The study will particularly
investigate the ability of community monitoring to achieve certain key objectives,
including;
Providing data which is accurate and reliable;
Providing appropriate data which can inform management and decision-making;
and
Increasing community awareness and understanding of local water issues.
The potential of community monitoring will be examined using two lines of
investigation. In order to assess the accuracy and reliability of community monitoring
results, a river monitoring program will be implemented in a high school and the results
compared with professional assessments. Participants will also be surveyed on their
knowledge and awareness of river and water issues, before and after the program, to
investigate the educational value of water monitoring. In addition, program co-ordinators
of an established community monitoring program will be interviewed and consulted on
their views and experiences on the ability of community monitoring to achieve the
objectives mentioned above.
3
Thesis outline
Following this introductory chapter, chapter 2 summarises the present water
situation in Malaysia. Special emphasis is given to the water quality of rivers and current
management and monitoring practices are described. The Malaysian Water Vision is
presented as a central policy toward the sustainable management of water resources and its
goals and objectives are outlined. Chapter 3 introduces the concept of community
monitoring as a tool for increasing community involvement in natural resource
management. Examples from the literature are used to describe the benefits and
limitations of community monitoring. Finally, community monitoring is placed in the
context of the Malaysian Water Vision and presented as a possible management tool.
Chapters 2 and 3 form the theoretical basis of the study.
Chapters 4 and 5 present the results of fieldwork completed in Malaysia. Chapter
4 details the implementation of a school river invertebrate monitoring program. The
chapter is structured as a standard biological paper, with an introduction, methods, results
and discussion. The concept of biological monitoring is introduced and the possible
sources of error and inaccuracy are described. The methods section documents the
approach used to compare school and professional assessments. Results of comparisons
are presented and discussed, and appropriate modifications to the school protocol are
suggested. Chapter 5 documents the community restoration and monitoring program at
Kelana Jaya Lakes. The achievements of the program are described, as well as the
challenges which confront the widespread adoption of the practice. Chapter 6 draws
together the outcomes of the study and discusses the implications of its findings. The
objectives from the Malaysian Water Vision are used as a framework to present findings.
4
Research Design
Genesis of the study
This research project grew out of my interest in South East Asian environments
and management of natural resources in developing regions. I was introduced to the topic
of community monitoring by my supervisor Dr Catherine Yule who is a lecturer in
Tropical Ecology at Monash University, Malaysia campus. I found the prospect of
researching an emerging method in environmental management to be exciting and began
to investigate the literature surrounding community monitoring. I also began working
with Waterwatch Victoria, a local community monitoring group, who gave me great
insights into how to organise and run monitoring programs involving volunteers. In total,
I spent 5 months in Malaysia conducting fieldwork from July – December 2009.
Overview of fieldwork: Implementation of school monitoring program
The professional study of the river, which was to be compared to the school
monitoring results, began in August. River water and invertebrate samples were collected
from different sites along the river and analysed in the laboratory over the next 3 months.
The school monitoring program was initiated by my supervisor Dr Catherine Yule,
who had contacts within the school. Initial meetings with the teachers took place in July
to design and plan the program. The program involved 6 classes from the middle school
and became part of their science curriculum. Monitoring was spread over 6 days in
September and October. It involved a half-day field trip to the river site, which was just a
5 minute drive from the school. The collected samples and data were then analysed during
a series of classroom sessions in early November. In late November we held a mini-
symposium, where the kids presented their monitoring results and I presented the results
of my monitoring.
Analysis of established community monitoring program
I first came across Global Environment Centre (GEC) when I was researching
rivers in Malaysia. GEC is a Malaysian based environmental NGO focused on
community management of natural resources. I emailed the manager of the rivers and
water division, who sent me a number of resources on GEC programs and initiatives.
5
Upon arrival in Malaysia, I was invited to a GEC workshop for government workers
where they were taught the importance of rivers and river monitoring. I then had regular
casual meetings with GEC staff and undertook a formal interview with the program
manager of the Kelana Jaya Lakes restoration program in December. The interview was
an hour long and recorded on a digital voice recorder. The interview was semi-structured
allowing for flexibility and a more relaxed atmosphere where the participant could feel
comfortable to share ideas and experiences.
6
Chapter 2 - Rivers and Water Resources in Malaysia
Introduction
In this chapter the present status of river pollution in Malaysia will be described as
well as current strategies for monitoring and management. The Malaysian Water Vision
2020 is presented as a central policy towards sustainable water management and the
restoration of river health.
Water Resources in Malaysia
In Malaysia, the availability of water resources has become an important issue in
recent years. Being a tropical region, there is an abundance of rain, more than is needed
for consumption purposes. With fluctuations around the country the average annual
rainfall is 3,000mm which makes up a total volume of 990 billion cubic meters (BCM) of
total annual water resources (Khalit 2007). This translates into an annual average water
availability of 28,400 m3
per capita. The countries water resources are summarised in
Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Water Resources in Malaysia (adapted from Khalit 2007)
Hydrological Parameter Total Volume per Annum (Billion m3)
Annual Rainfall (3,000mm) 990
Evapo-transpiration 360
Effective Rainfall 630
Surface Runoff 566
Groundwater Recharge 64
Surface Artificial Storage (Dams) 25
Total Water Demand 15.5
Streams and rivers with and without impounding reservoirs contribute 98% of total water
used in Malaysia, the remainder is contributed by groundwater. River flow regimes are
irregular and to secure safe yield from water sources, storage facilities have been
7
constructed. Currently there are 47 single purpose and 16 multipurpose dams with a total
storage capacity of 25 billion m3 (Madsen,et al. 2003).
In recent times the water supply situation for Malaysia has changed from one of
relative abundance to one of scarcity. Water shortages, water supply disruptions, and even
water rationing have become commonplace. Population growth, urbanization,
industrialization and the expansion of irrigated agriculture are imposing rapidly increasing
demands and pressure on water resources, besides contributing to the rising water
pollution. Since the 1960s the water demand in Malaysia has increased by an annual
average of 9-10% (Aini et al. 2001). In the fastest developing parts of the nation water
demand is rising even faster, and presently there is nothing indicating that demand for
water will decline in the future. It is estimated that total demand for industry sectors,
agriculture, irrigation and domestic use will rise to 14,504 Million Cubic Meters (MCM),
compared to 1,622 MCM of current demand (Muyibi et al. 2008). In line with Vision
2020, Malaysia is expected to undergo intensive economic development in the years to
come, increasing demand and pressure on an already stretched water supply. Water
shortages and supply problems could impede social and economic activities as set under
the national development plans.
Water management is becoming increasingly comprehensive and complicated due
to large concentrations of population, commercial activities and industries around cities
and towns, increasing water consumption, increasing water pollution, increasing land use
conflicts and climate change. Lee and Facon (2001) identified the five main issues and
challenges facing the Malaysian water sector which affect the sustainability of
development which are summarised below:
a) Institutional and Legal Issues
There is no single agency in the country entrusted with the overall responsibility of
holistic planning and management of water. Water management is shared between the
Department of Irrigation and Drainage, Department of Environment, Department of Town
and Country Planning, Fisheries Department and the National Water Resources Council.
8
Malaysia suffers from a plethora of sector-based water laws, at the federal, state
and local levels (Lee and Facon 2001). At present, water legislation is contained within
the laws that are enforced by the various water-related government agencies, and many of
these laws are outdated, redundant or ambiguous (Lee and Facon 2001).
b) Increased Competition for Water
The problem of population growth has been particularly felt in the urban areas, due
to rural-urban migration and urbanisation. Often the supporting infrastructure for the
collection, treatment and disposal of sewage and solid wastes is inadequate to cope with
the amounts generated.
The increased demand for the limited and diminishing supply of clean water has
led to competition among the various water users, a competition that continued economic
growth exacerbates increasingly. The practicable limit of surface water resources
development has been reached in some regions of high demand, and it has become
necessary to develop inter-basin and interstate surface water transfer schemes.
c) Increased flooding problems
Ironically, at times of water shortages, parts of Malaysia face significant flood
problems. Although floods are natural phenomena arising from excessive rainfall
overwhelming waterways, uncontrolled development activities in watershed areas and
along river corridors can increase the severity of floods. It has been estimated that
altogether about 29,000 km2 or 9% of the total land area of Malaysia are flood-prone,
affecting some 12% of the population (Lee and Facon. 2001). The average annual flood
damage was estimated at RM100 million in 1990, but this has increased due to urban
expansion and the escalation of land and property prices (Lee and Facon 2001).
9
d) River degradation
The development of public utilities such as water supply, sewage, and urban
drainage and flood mitigation programmes helps to promote economic growth. However,
this economic development and the resulting rapid urbanization and industrialization have
given rise to problems of increased water pollution. River water quality and pollution
control needs to be addressed urgently since 98% of the total water used originates from
rivers.
e) Low efficiency of water use
Efficiency of water use in Malaysia is generally low. Irrigation efficiency is in the
range of 40 to 50%, because almost all of the irrigation systems are open systems designed
to take advantage of flooding (Lee and Facon 2001). There is also a high proportion of
unaccounted-for water in urban water supply systems, as one quarter to one third of the
domestic and industrial water is lost before it reaches the consumers. These losses are the
result of leaks in the distribution systems and of illegal connections. As the physical
limits of water supply are being reached, more emphasis needs to be placed on increased
efficiency in water use.
Rivers in Malaysia
Being a peninsula (West Malaysia) and part of Borneo Island (Sabah and
Sarawak), rivers are numerous and relatively short. Originating from the central
highlands, more than 189 river systems containing 1800 rivers and tributaries traverse the
country, a total length of 38,000km (Zakaria et al. 2003). Rivers and their surrounding
areas are renowned as the centre for population growth and development since the
beginning of human civilisation in Malaysia, as in most areas of the world. Throughout
history rivers have provided many essential services such as transportation and navigation,
water supply, irrigation, drainage, waste disposal systems, food supply, and in recent
years, power generation. Therefore, it is no surprise that until today, rivers remain the
10
centre of human activity that influences the lives and culture of Malaysian society
(Department of Environment 2008).
River Pollution
Throughout history, river water quality deterioration in Malaysia has been
synonymous with development. Water resources development has been a catalyst for the
socio-economic development of the country during the past decades. Dams and
kilometres of pipelines and canals divert water from rivers to sustain domestic, industrial
and agricultural needs. At the same time, the main economic activities of each era are
reflected in the patterns of river pollution. From the 1960s-1980s, agro-based industries
were the main pollution sources, in the 1990s the manufacturing industries were the
dominant polluters. Today with the housing boom in Malaysia and increasing
urbanisation, domestic sewage and erosion from construction and land clearance is the
main pollution source. The main sources of pollution are briefly discussed below:
Agro-based industries
Malaysia is the world‟s second largest producer of palm oil (the first up until 2007
when Indonesia took over) and the third largest of rubber (Wu et al. 2009). Export
earnings from these products contribute significantly to the nation‟s economy but the
plantations are also the largest producer of agricultural wastes. Palm oil mill effluent and
effluent from the processing of natural rubber were identified as the major contributors to
the rapid deterioration of the aquatic environment in the 1970s and 1980s (Abdullah
1995). According to the Department of Environment, the contribution of the agro-based
industries to the organic pollution load has decreased substantially from 67% in 1980,
15% in 1986, and to 3% as of 2004 (Muyibi et al. 2008). The government attributes the
reduction in pollution to the effectiveness of legislation governing discharge of specific
effluents, coupled with necessary enforcement mechanisms which required the oil palm
and rubber industries to design and adopt appropriate treatment technologies (Wu et al.
2009). However, the decrease is just as much a reflection of the changing pollution loads
than actual decrease in the amount of pollution produced by the industry. To date the
industry still produces 1,222 tonnes of organic pollution every day (Wu et al. 2009).
11
Industrial Pollution
Concomitant with the rapid pace of industrialisation, increasing amounts of toxic
and hazardous wastes are being generated by a wide range of industrial activities. A
survey back in 1995 involving the manufacturing industries, estimated total industrial
effluents to be 380,000m3 per year (Muyibi et al. 2008). Food and beverage industries
followed by the chemical production industry were identified as the major pollution
sources. Rivers that support industrial activities have been frequently observed to contain
significant levels of heavy metals such as lead, mercury and cadmium, exceeding
minimum recommended levels (Abdul Rahman 2004).
Sewage
Sewage works often lag behind development projects, with sewage disposal
usually considered as an „afterthought‟. In the year 1981, the Department of Environment
recognised the need to increase sewage system projects in Malaysia. At this time, sewage
systems were only available in a few places such as Georgetown, Shah Alam and Kuala
Lumpur (Abdullah 1995). Today, Malaysia has over 8000 sewage plants and
approximately 7,500 km of sewers, mostly situated in urban areas, serving more than 12
million people (Abdullah 1995). However, most people rely on septic tanks or dispose of
sewage directly into rivers and waterways. Rivers used for water supply often have
alarming levels of bacteriological contamination due to the discharge of
untreated/inadequately treated domestic sewage particularly coastal waterways, as
evidenced by the extensive faecal contamination of coastal waters off the more populated
states in Malaysia. Between 2000-2004, domestic sewage was the highest pollution
source in Malaysia, responsible for 53% of all water pollution (Khalit 2007).
Animal husbandry
Pig farms were the second highest pollution source from 2000-2004, responsible
for 38% of all water pollution (Khalit 2007). Pig farming has a high demand for water,
resulting in large quantities of wastewater being discharged into rivers, with high organic
loads (Abdullah 1995). Wastes from the pig industry include urine, faeces and trace
12
metals such as zinc, lead and copper (Muyibi et al. 2008). Technology is available to treat
wastewater to the extent that it can be reused and thereby avoiding the pollution of
waterways, and decreasing the high water demand of the industry. However, the industry
is predominantly made of small producers who cannot afford to install the appropriate
treatment technology (Muyabi et al. 2008).
Erosion and Siltation Control
Heavy sedimentation of Malaysia‟s rivers resulting from deforestation and erosion
from earthworks activities is emerging as Malaysia‟s dominant pollution source. It is
common practice to remove all vegetation from relatively large surface areas of land in the
pursuit of economic activities and preparation for the construction of houses and roads in
particular. The Department of Environment monitored suspended solids over a 5 year
period and found that 69 out of the 89 rivers monitored were affected by soil erosion and
siltation (Khalit, 2007).
River Monitoring
The responsibility for controlling and monitoring the health of Malaysia‟s rivers is
with the Department of Environment, which has been conducting river monitoring since
1978 (Abdul Rahman 2004). The goal of the monitoring is to establish water quality
status, detect any changes or degradation and identify pollution sources. A total of 1,064
manual stations are located within 120 river basins throughout Malaysia (Department of
Environment 2008). In addition, 15 automatic water quality monitoring stations have
been installed to monitor river quality changes on a continuous basis (Department of
Environment 2008). This involves routine monitoring at predetermined stations, in-situ
and laboratory analysis and data interpretation in terms of physical-chemical
characteristics. River water quality appraisal is based on the river Water Quality Index
(WQI), consisting of six parameters (Department of Environment 2008), namely:
DO (Dissolved Oxygen) BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand)
COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand) AN (Ammoniacal Nitrogen)
SS (Suspended Solids) pH (pH value)
13
Water quality data collected from monitored rivers are then compared with the
Interim National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQS) to determine their status
as clean, slightly polluted or polluted. The findings are published in the annual State of
the Environment report in accordance with the Environmental Quality Act 1974. For
2007, out of 143 river basins monitored, 91 (63%) were found to be clean, 45 (32%)
slightly polluted and 7 (5%) polluted (Figure 2.1). This is a slight improvement from
1997 where out of the 114 basins monitored, 24 (21%) were clean, 68 (58%) slightly
polluted and 25 (21%) polluted (Figure 2.1). However, such chemical monitoring has
shortcomings, for example pristine waterbodies in peat swamps would be considered
polluted on the basis of their naturally high acidity, and low dissolved oxygen.
Figure 2.1 River basins water quality trend 1997 – 2007 (Department of Environment
2008).
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Nu
mb
er
of
Riv
er
Bas
ins
Year
Clean
Slightly Polluted
Polluted
14
Malaysia’s Water Vision
The Malaysian Water Vision was developed on the framework of the World Water
Vision, which came as a response by the World Water Council to growing water problems
worldwide. The Vision is characterised by a participatory approach with extensive
consultation with groups in and beyond the water sector and prescribes future actions
needed for sustainable water use to become a reality (Lee and Facon 2001). The idea is
that countries adopt the main concepts in the Vision and adjust it to their own needs where
necessary. The Malaysian visioning process was undertaken by the Malaysian Water
Partnership (MWP) which operates within the Department of Irrigation and Drainage
(DID). The framework for the Vision was agreed upon during a series of national
consultations with the water sector. The Malaysian Water Vision is formulated as
follows:
“In support of Vision 2020 (towards achieving developed nation status), Malaysia will
conserve and manage its water resources to ensure adequate and safe water for all
(including the environment)”
The key objectives were identified as follows:
Water for people: all have access to safe, adequate, and affordable water supply, hygiene
and sanitation.
Water for food and rural development: provision of sufficient water that will ensure
national food security and promote rural development.
Water for economic development: provision of sufficient water to spur and sustain
economic growth within the context of a knowledge-based economy and e-commerce.
Water for the environment: protection of the water environment to preserve water
resources (both surface and groundwater) and flow regimes, biodiversity and cultural
heritage, and to mitigate water related hazards.
(Lee and Facon 2001; p25)
15
Integrated Water Resources Management
The main instrument towards achieving these goals is a change in management
practice towards Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM). IWRM is a water
governance management paradigm. It starts with the recognition that water is a core
development issue and therefore, management of the water resource will affect almost
every activity within the wider economy and society, including industrial activity, land
use, population and settlement growth (Madsen et al. 2003). The Vision describes IWRM
as:
“A holistic and participatory approach to water management. It requires a move from
sectoral to integrated management, from top-down to stakeholder and demand responsive
approaches, from supply fix to demand management, from command and control to more
co-operative forms of governance and from closed expert-driven management
organisations to more open, transparent, communicative bodies” (Madsen et al. 2003;
p43)
An important feature of IWRM is the management of rivers from an ecosystem
health approach. It views the river as a living system consisting of biological, chemical
and physical features that are all interrelated and interdependent. This is an approach that
views the maintenance of natural cycles and processes as vital for current and future
abilities and ecosystems to provide goods and services to meet human needs (Andan and
Nordin 2001). “Among the common characteristics of an ecosystem-based approach are
holistic, interdisciplinary, goal-oriented, participatory and aimed at getting people to
realise that humans are part of the ecosystem - not separate from it” (Andan and Nordin
2001; p333). Moving closer to the ecosystem approach in environmental planning and
management will be a vital step towards making development sustainable in Malaysia.
Implementation
It is acknowledged that the country is facing an enormous task in order to
implement Integrated Water Resources Management, and that major changes in the
16
institutional set-up are necessary. The „way forward‟ is prescribed in the vision and
indicates the way in which to implement IWRM in a Malaysian context. A framework of
action has been formulated with 16 key milestones and targets to achieve specific
improvements in the water sector. For the purposes of this study, special emphasis is put
on the following:
a) Increased awareness of the economic, social and environmental value of
water among decision-makers and politicians and the public
b) Promotion of river education
c) Significant reduction of pollution from point and non-point sources
d) Full restoration of rivers and return of aquatic life
e) Water ecosystems‟ protection
f) Frequent dialogue with all stake holders in the water sector
g) Participatory approach in decision-making
h) Resource assessment and monitoring
(Lee et al. 2001; p25)
The responsible agencies for the implementation of the Vision were identified as
the Economic Planning Unit (EPU), the Malaysian Water Partnership and the National
Water Resource Council (NWRC) (Lee et al. 2001). The ministries of Education and
Information will also assist to enhance public awareness.
Evaluation
The Malaysian Water Vision is an ambitious document including many visionary
goals and statements, but the question arises: is the document only providing an
ideological vision and not policy-goals and objectives that can actually be achieved? The
intent of an effective policy must be the establishment of a strategy and the approach to be
taken to achieve these goals. To secure successful implementation it should include
concrete proposals for action with explicit targets and goals. Madsen et al. (2001) believes
that it is important that goals are clear, limited, explicit, mutually reinforcing and in
compliance with instruments that are envisaged to implement and enforce them. The main
objectives of the Vision do not possess these important features. The Vision was
developed by representatives from many different positions and interests in Malaysian
17
society and therefore various opinions are represented. Some commentators have stated
that this has diminished the objectives of the Vision and its power to achieve „real‟ change
in management of water resources (Madsen et al. 2003; Abidin 2004).
Conclusion
The availability of water in Malaysia has become an important issue in recent
years. Rapid development has put tremendous stress and demands on water resources, and
issues with water supply and availability threaten to limit Malaysia‟s plans for future
development. Rivers contribute the overwhelming bulk of available water, and
degradation of river environments and water quality is seen as the major impediment to
providing a reliable water supply. Malaysia‟s Water Vision has been presented as the
central policy towards sustainable water management. However, for the Vision to become
a reality and not just another example of symbol-politics, specific action programs need to
be put forward, implemented and monitored.
18
Chapter 3 - Community Monitoring
Introduction
This chapter introduces the concept of community monitoring as a tool for
increasing community involvement in environmental management. The benefits for both
participants and management outcomes are explored, as are the challenges which confront
the widespread adoption of the practice. Finally, community monitoring is presented as a
potential management tool towards achieving Malaysia‟s Water Vision.
Community Involvement in Environmental Management
Community Monitoring makes up one component of the broader contribution of
public participation in the management and protection of environmental resources. Public
participation has become seen as increasingly vital in achieving sustainable environmental
outcomes, given the growing recognition of the need to include local communities in the
decisions that affect the environment in which they live (Harding 1998). Rather than
outside program makers unilaterally defining environmental programs, stakeholders are
empowered, through a process of group learning and consensus-building to create and
manage their own programs (Burgess et al. 2009). Local communities are encouraged to
develop this participatory process on their own, or if required, with the help of outsiders
(government, international agency or NGO staff) who act as catalysts or facilitators of the
process (Campbell et al. 2003).
Perhaps the biggest breakthrough for community involvement came when the
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development agreed under Agenda 21 to
emphasise the importance of rethinking the „top-down‟ approach to environmental
management in favour of one that involves people‟s participation and accommodates
indigenous knowledge, local values and interests (United Nations, 1992). This bedding
down of local participation in environmental decision-making was signed by 178 member
nations, supplying the international legislative framework from which state-based
management programs could build on (United Nations, 1992). Today, international banks,
governments and NGO‟s are allocating enormous amounts of financial and logistical aid
toward community based management programs and policies (Cuthill 2000).
19
Community Monitoring
Community monitoring provides the public with a means by which to become
more involved in decision-making, by collecting data to inform natural resource
management (Danielsen et al. 2005). Most of the literature on methods of natural resource
monitoring covers an externally driven approach in which professional researchers from
outside the study area set up, run, and analyse the results from a monitoring program that
has been funded by a remote agency. This approach has been criticised for being too
expensive to sustain over time and reliant on outside actors (Sheil 2001). Alternatives are
emerging which are carried out at a local level, by community members who may not have
received technical training, or formal education in their field of interest (Danielsen et al.
2005). Community monitoring can often reinforce existing community-based resource
management systems and lead to changes in the attitude of locals towards environmentally
sustainable resource management (Danielsen et al. 2007).
Importance of Environmental Monitoring
Monitoring has been defined as the systematic measurement of variables and
processes over time and assumes that there is a specific reason for that collection of data,
such as ensuring that standards are being met (Spellerberg 1991). Monitoring of natural
resources has become increasingly important in providing adequate knowledge of trends
in species and habitats to make informed policy decisions. According to Danielsen et al.
(2005), there are three kinds of actors and actions for which such monitoring is becoming
increasingly important:
1. At the international, regional and national scales a raft of policy initiatives have
committed Governments to achieving quantitative targets in conserving
biodiversity and ensuring its benefits are shared equally (Danielsen et al. 2005).
2. Monitoring is crucial at all scales for conservationists to assess the success of their
efforts. Ways of measuring the effectiveness of different projects and programs
are increasingly required by institutions and individuals that fund conservation
agencies and NGOs.
20
3. Thirdly, and most crucial to the context of this study, the past two decades has seen
a progressive shift towards involving local communities formally in the
management of protected areas, and these newly recognised partnerships require
monitoring data to inform their decisions.
Shortfalls of Professional Monitoring
In the past, most attention has been paid to what has been termed „professional
monitoring‟, conducted by trained scientists working primarily for government agencies or
NGOs (Danielsen et al. 2005). Criticism of this approach has emerged especially in
developing countries, where there is a lack of financial and human resources. Professional
monitoring is often costly, at least relative to the budgets of conservation agencies.
Employing scientists with appropriate field and analytical skills, buying and maintaining
monitoring equipment and running data analysis facilities requires a significant amount of
resources (Devlin et al. 2001).
Professional monitoring is often seen as paying inadequate attention to the
objectives of other key stakeholders besides professional resource managers, especially
local communities whose livelihoods are often closely impacted by the resources
concerned (Sheil 2001). Professional monitoring can address this through extensive
dialogue with all stakeholders at the onset and throughout the course of monitoring.
However, in reality due to shortages of money, time, and trained personnel this rarely
occurs.
Benefits of Community Monitoring
Increased community involvement in monitoring of natural resources has the
potential to provide great benefit for both environmental managers and local communities
(Whitelaw et al. 2003). Community-based approaches have considerable potential to
complement professional monitoring, especially in developing countries by addressing the
some of the shortfalls mentioned earlier. While the preference is for community
monitoring to help inform management at the planning and policy stage, community
collected data can be used to critique management by providing data on the progress or
success of a given management intervention (Whitelaw et al. 2003) .
21
Furthermore, community monitoring can provide a link to governance itself, by
providing an active first step for citizens to participate in the management of a shared
natural resource (Ticheleret al. 1998). The knowledge and experience gained by volunteer
participants through monitoring projects can increase their capacity for a more inclusive
role in future management of natural resources (Ticheler et al. 1998). Experiences
indicate that community monitoring can be considered a social, cultural and political
process of bringing people together in new ways, coming to understand different views
and enhancing democratic decision-making on what type of measures to take (Van
Rijsoort and Jinfeng 2005).
Community Knowledge and Empowerment
Beyond the potential natural resource benefits, community monitoring can lead to
enhanced awareness and education, and a change in attitudes towards more
environmentally sustainable natural resource management among local participants
(Tawake 2001; Danielsen et al. 2005). It has been shown that through learning about their
environment, local monitors themselves are likely to share the knowledge they gather with
other members of the community (Andrianandrasana et al. 2005).
Building Social Networks
The potential partnerships which can be created through monitoring can produce
many invaluable outcomes for both the communities and agencies involved (Tawake
2001). The process of undertaking a monitoring program, determining how to utilise data
and influence decision-making leads to the development of social capital through the
creation of social networks (Whitelaw et al. 2003), and an increase in trust and
understanding between those involved in the monitoring process (Van Rijsoort 2005). In
this sense, community monitoring could be considered not just scientific process, but a
social, cultural and political process of bringing people together in new ways, coming to
understand different views, and enhancing democratic decision-making on what types of
measures to take (Guijt 1998).
22
Community monitoring can also be a valuable tool in improving communication
and understanding between local communities and government authorities. Monitoring
schemes can provide an opportunity for the public to interact and collaborate with
government bodies and administrative officials in charge of natural resource management
(Becker et al. 2005). Mutual awareness and a deeper knowledge of the different points of
view can reduce misunderstandings and friction. Experiences have shown that community
monitoring schemes can lead to increased trust between local stakeholders, and to more
transparent, accountable and democratic decision-making, thereby fostering a sense of
good governance (Guijt 1998).
Cost
Community monitoring data is likely to be much more cost effective than the
professional equivalent; an important consideration given the financial limitations often
confronting natural resource management, especially in developing regions (Burgess et al.
2009). While monitoring programs might require an initial cost outlay for training and
recruitment purposes, the post-establishment costs are generally minimal (Becker et al.
2005).
Sampling Intensity
An added benefit of using volunteers in an assessment program is the ability of a
group of volunteers to sample at multiple locations at one time. Professionals must
monitor a large number of widely disturbed sites, so they may only be able to visit a site
once every few years, which greatly limits their ability to detect short-term changes in
ecological conditions (Engel 2002). In addition, volunteers often monitor the areas where
they live or go for recreation, so they can watch for changing conditions and report them
in a timely fashion (Maas 1991).
23
Limitations of Community Monitoring
Monitoring Accuracy and Reliability
As volunteer collected data is increasingly incorporated into important regulatory
decisions that have far-reaching consequences, concerns have been raised over the validity
of using data from volunteers. Decision-makers have traditionally been sceptical about
the reliability of volunteer collected data, which is commonly viewed as an educational
exercise rather than the scientific collection of data (Penrose 1995). Community
monitoring can often lack data validation procedures which are required in traditional
scientific studies. If community data is to be used for the purposes of management and
decision-making, then it must be reinforced by data validation and quality control
procedures
Motivation
As community monitoring is volunteer-focused, understanding the motivation and
objectives of individuals is vital in retaining participants in monitoring programs. If
monitoring data is not feeding back into management, participants can lose faith in
achieving their specified goals (Sharpe 2006). In Halifax, Canada, water quality
monitoring provided evidence of increased sedimentation of local waterways, yet the lack
of action from local authorities resulted in participant disillusionment and a desire to drop
out of the program (Sharpe 2006). Monitoring can seem useless if participants are
observing the environmental degradation worsening, without any mitigating action taking
place (Sharpe 2006).
Funding
As mentioned earlier, community monitoring is generally more cost-effective than
professional monitoring, however, the costs associated with training and equipment can
see monitoring programs incur costs which threaten the sustainability of the project
(Topp-Jorgensen et al. 2004). In addition, if monitoring projects are established by an
external donor, such as an NGO, local participants may not have the resources or expertise
to continue with the project when external funding and support ceases (Andrianandrasana
et al. 2005). .
24
Community Monitoring and the Malaysian Water Vision
As discussed in the previous chapter, the Malaysian Water Vision sets many
ambitious goals and objectives, targeted at the sustainable management of water resources
in Malaysia. The vision, however, lacks specific action plans and to-date the progress
towards achieving the vision can be described as underwhelming. Community monitoring
stands out as a practical management tool which has the potential to make significant
contribution towards the vision.
Community monitoring has the capacity to address a number of the key objectives
in the vision including:
i) Increased awareness of the economic, social and environmental value of
water among decision-makers and politicians and the public
j) Promotion of river education
k) Significant reduction of pollution from point and non-point sources
l) Full restoration of rivers and return of aquatic life
m) Water ecosystems protection
n) Frequent dialogue with all stake holders in the water sector
o) Participatory approach in decision-making
p) Resource assessment and monitoring
(Lee 2001, pp25)
Various examples in the literature, which are discussed earlier in the chapter, demonstrate
that community monitoring can lead to increased community knowledge and
empowerment, the building of social capacity, and can act as an adjunct to the shortfalls in
professional monitoring. If community monitoring is to be adopted for use in Malaysian
rivers, weaknesses in the accuracy and reliability volunteer collected data, and the level of
community motivation need to be acknowledged and managed accordingly.
25
Conclusion
Community monitoring offers a potential pathway to involve the public in
environmental management. It provides many benefits for both participants and
management outcomes, and is especially effective in developing regions where traditional
monitoring can be restrained by a shortage of human and financial resources. Community
monitoring may provide a useful tool in achieving the goals stated in Malaysia‟s Water
Vision, however, limitations in the accuracy and reliability of volunteer monitoring results
need to be addressed.
26
Chapter 4 - Implementation of an Invertebrate
Monitoring Program in a Malaysian High School
Introduction
Malaysia currently lacks any recognised protocols for biological assessments of
rivers and streams, or any established community monitoring programs. This chapter
describes the design and implementation of an invertebrate monitoring program in a
Malaysian high school. School monitoring results are compared to professional
assessments to assess accuracy and any necessary modifications to the school protocol are
suggested.
Biological Monitoring
Biological monitoring (also called bio-monitoring or bio-assessment) is defined as
an evaluation of the condition of a water body using biological surveys and other direct
measurements of the resident biota in surface waters (Engel 2002). Biological monitoring
can be done with any living organisms, but benthic macroinvertebrates, fish, and algal
assemblages are used most often, in that order. Benthic macroinvertebrates are those
organisms that live on the bottom of aquatic environments, or on objects protruding above
the bottom, and are large enough to see by eye without any magnification. Although
complete studies may include all three assemblages, benthic macroinvertebrates are used
most often for several reasons. First, benthic macroinvertebrates do not migrate very far,
thereby ensuring exposure to a pollutant or stress reliably conveys local conditions. This
reliable representation of ecological conditions allows for comparison of sites that are in
close proximity. Second, macroinvertebrate life stages are short enough that sensitive life
stages will be affected by stress, but long enough that any impairment is measurable in the
assemblage. Benthic macroinvertebrates are found in even the smallest streams and have
a wide range of sensitivity to all types of pollution and stress, allowing for monitoring in
most conditions. Finally, sampling benthic macroinvertebrates is easy, cost effective, and
does not permanently harm the local assemblage. Impairment can easily be detected by
27
the trained monitor with even the simplest of identifications (Plafkin et al. 1989; Voshell
et al. 1997).
Biological Monitoring is recognised in many parts of the world as fundamental to
sustainable management of the globe‟s freshwater resources. In Europe, for example, the
European Framework Directive (2000) requires that water resources be subject to
ecological assessment, to provide a basis for management and restoration efforts of water
catchments. In Australia, water quality has been assessed nationally using biological
indicators since the mid-1990s, to guide water management agencies as well as the recent
National Water Initiative (2006)(Newall et al. 2006). In America, the use of biological
surveys to regulate water quality has become widespread, following the 1987 amendments
to the federal Clean Water Act, where section 101(a) states that its primary objectives are
to “restore, maintain the chemical, physical and biological integrity of the nations waters”
(Mebane 2001).
Biological measurements provide direct information on the condition of groups of
biota resident in the water resource, and therefore on the condition of the resource. Thus,
they address management issues more directly and can provide a more sensitive time-
integrated assessment of river condition than physical or chemical parameters (Marchant
et al. 2006).
Biological Monitoring in Malaysia
As mentioned earlier, Malaysia, as in much of the developing world, lacks any
formal biological monitoring programs, relying on traditional physio-chemical and
microbial measurements. The only biological data collected are for microbial analyses,
such as measurements of total coliform and faecal coliform bacteria (Morse et al. 2007).
Morse et al. (2007) lists the main impediments to macroinvertebrate monitoring as:
(1) Lack of knowledge about macroinvertebrate fauna and their tolerance or sensitivity
to pollution, especially during aquatic, immature stages.
28
(2) The scarcity of trained professionals with the knowledge required to implement
biological monitoring, and lack of formal training opportunities offered in
universities.
(3) Shortage of high quality microscopes and other necessary resources.
(4) Limited government understanding and support for bio-monitoring, few regulatory
staff and the persistence of old monitoring techniques.
Although there are no established biological monitoring programs in Malaysia, some
studies have been completed by university research groups, on the impact of a variety of
disturbance on macroinvertebrate assemblages (e.g. Chin 2003), but these mostly remain
unpublished (Morse et al. 2007). A recent study comparing macroinvertebrate
assemblages between a polluted urban stream (Langat River) and a pristine river,
identified several macroinvertebrate species as potential bioindicators for polluted and
clean environments (Azrina et al. 2006). A guide to the aquatic macroinvertebrate fauna
of the region was published in 2004 (Yule and Yong 2004). However, until there is
greater knowledge of local fauna and their response to pollution, as well as trained
taxonomists and biologists to implement programs, biological monitoring will remain
uncommon.
Monitoring Methods
A variety of protocols have been developed for conducting macroinvertebrate
monitoring worldwide. Appropriate methods for collecting, sorting, and identifying
macroinvertebrate samples are dependent on the objectives of the monitoring program.
Monitoring protocols can range from comprehensive quantitative sampling, conducted by
professional biologists, to rapid qualitative sampling, conducted in schools. Rapid
methods have substantial advantages for routine monitoring over traditional quantitative
methods: costs are much lower and results can be obtained in a shorter time. In recent
times, with management emphasis on timely, cost effective monitoring, rapid methods are
increasingly being favoured to avoid the time-consuming quantitative elements of
29
traditional biological assessment (Chessman 1995). However, rapid methods do not
provide accurate information on abundance of species, and it has therefore been assumed
that such methods can detect only gross impacts and are inevitably less sensitive than
quantitative methods. This assumption has not been adequately tested.
Collection of Macroinvertebrate Samples
A common method used by professional biologists for the collection of river
macroinvertebrate samples is the Surber sampler. The technique allows for the easy
quantification of samples and is used for intensive studies on macroinvertebrate
community structure. However, quantitative studies are inherently expensive and time
consuming, as such, there is a need to consider alternative, cost effective methods for the
routine monitoring of benthic fauna. The pond net or kick net sample has gained
acceptance as the preferred method for rapid monitoring assessment as „a convenient,
qualitative method which does not rely on cumbersome or expensive equipment‟ (Storey
et al. 1991). Several studies have compared samples taken from Surber samplers with
kick net samples (Hornig 1978; Mackey et al. 1984; Storey et al. 1991; Torralba Burrial
2007). Storey (1990) compared the effectiveness of the two techniques and found that
kick samples tended to have a greater abundance macroinvertebrates, whereas, Surber
samples contained a higher species richness and low-occurrence (rare) taxa. Hornig
(1987) proposed that the kick technique will sample the more easily dislodged and highly
mobile taxa, whereas the Surber method, being more intensive will take cryptic and
closely adherent taxa (Hornig 1978). The inability of kick net samples to detect low-
occurrence taxa is a concern for environmental assessment. Part of such assessment is the
detection of rare and potentially endangered species.
Sorting Macroinvertebrate Samples
The two most common techniques for sorting macroinvertebrates are lab-sorting
and live-sorting (Nichols 2006). Traditionally, macroinvertebrate samples will be
preserved for transportation to the laboratory, and then macroinvertebrates will be sorted
from the debris using a stereo microscope, the objective being to sort and identify every
30
organism in the sample. Complete sorting and counting of all the invertebrates in large
samples can be time-consuming and costly, so sub-sampling (such as fixing the numbers
of animals counted) is often employed. Live sorting of samples on site is a popular
technique in Australian water monitoring programs. Live specimens are picked from the
sample, by eye, either for a set period of time or until a certain number of specimens is
selected (Nichols 2006). According to Chessman (1995), live-sorting has several benefits
over lab-sorting, including;
(i) speeds up the overall assessment,
(ii) avoids the retention of unwanted specimens and debris,
(iii) facilitated by animal movements,
(iv) more convenient than laboratory picking for habitats such as large rocks or
logs; and
(v) cost effective.
Several studies have compared the effectiveness of the different sorting techniques
(Kerans et al. 1992; Chessman 1995; Metzeling et al. 2002; Nichols 2006; Nerbonne et al.
2008; Gillies et al. 2009). Most studies have found that live picking will result in higher
relative abundance of large, mobile invertebrates compared to lab-sorting, because smaller
organisms are harder to recognise with the naked eye.
Identification and Taxonomic Level
Arguably the most debated issue related to bio-assessment methods is the
establishment of appropriate taxonomic resolution levels. Of all aspects of bio-
monitoring, the identification of organisms requires the most resources, specialised
knowledge and is the most time-consuming. Many authors call for species-level
identifications to ensure accurate assessments of ecosystem health (Resh 1975; Simpson et
al. 1985; Houston et al. 2001). Resh et al. (1975) stated that lower taxonomic resolution is
“generally useless, because particular species may vary widely in ecological tolerance”.
Species have particular traits, preferences and tolerances which are important determinates
of landscape patterns in their occurrence and abundance. Thus assemblages respond to
31
environmental gradients via the traits, preferences and tolerances of the component species
(Poff 1997). Consequently, in studies using macroinvertebrates as indicators for
monitoring rivers and streams, species level identifications in comparison with lower
resolution identifications can have greater information content and result in more reliable
site classifications (Barbour et al. 1996); can give greater resolution to detecting
differences between reference and test sites; are required for detecting the presence of rare
or threatened species (Bouchard et al. 2005) and thus may be required for the
identification of sites for protection in conservation studies. However, many monitoring
programs identify specimens to the resolution of family rather than species, and some
biotic indices (e.g. EPT) utilise macroinvertebrate data at the order level (Marshall et al.
2006). There are often time and financial restrictions limiting how much effort can be
directed towards the identification of each specimen and the cost, in terms of time and
expertise, of identifying macroinvertebrates to species-level are high. In addition, finer
taxonomic resolutions can decrease the accuracy of identifications in the absence of
trained taxonomists (Bouchard et al. 2005). To help solve the problem of taxonomic
resolution, Ellis (1985) suggests „taxonomic sufficiency‟ as a concept that “in any project
organisms must be identified to a level (species, genera, family etc.) which balances the
need to indicate the biology of organisms with the accuracy in making identifications”.
Omitting pragmatic constraints (e.g. resources or knowledge limitations), four aspects of a
study can influence the taxonomic sufficiency:
(1) the purpose of the study;
(2) sensitivity required;
(3) type of analysis; and
(4) the group of organisms of interest (Ellis 1985).
32
Volunteer Monitoring
Freshwater macroinvertebrate monitoring has been widely promoted as a means to
educate the general public and involve them in the care of local waterways. Volunteer
monitoring allows communities to understand local ecosystems firsthand, build
relationships with scientists and government mangers, and interact around science-based
conservation (Fore et al. 2001). In addition, volunteers are encouraged to contribute their
data to local and state databases to track long-term trends in water quality. Government
agencies and regulators worldwide suffer from a lack of resources and professional
biologists, especially in the developing world, leaving large information and knowledge
gaps on water resources. In many parts of the world volunteers have recently organised
and stepped forward to help fill the sampling gap. There are many volunteer programs in
place around the world that are thought to be successful at collecting data at lower costs
than professional surveys. Much has been written on the merits of volunteer biological
monitoring (Reynoldson et al. 1986; Firehock 1995; Penrose 1995; Fore et al. 2001;
Engel 2002; Nerbonne et al. 2008). Firehock (1995) identified the main purposes of
volunteer monitoring, including:
(1) Educating the local community about water quality and river health,
(2) Tracking stream water quality at locations of interest to citizen groups and/or
locations where state and local governments lack data,
(3) Establishing long-term trends for the stream and providing baseline
information,
(4) Identifying streams in need of restoration or cleanup, or streams that may
threatened,
(5) Locating pollution problems such as dumping, spills, or unregulated
discharges,
(6) Determining the success of management practices and restoration efforts; and
(7) Providing tools for country and city planners to make decisions on land-use
and growth.
33
It has been assumed that with proper training and adequate quality
control/assurance plans, volunteers can collect data suitable for making regulatory
decisions. The United States EPA has decided that data from volunteers can and should
be used in reports that are required from states on current environmental condition of
waterbodies. Volunteer collected data in Australia is used in annual government reports
on the state of the environment, and the Victorian EPA has used volunteer data for the
detection and prosecution of illegal discharges (Thompson 2004).
As volunteer data is increasingly incorporated into important regulatory decisions
that have far-reaching consequences, concerns have been raised over the validity of using
data from volunteers. Some of the primary reasons for concern are the level to which
volunteers identify macroinvertebrates, the limitations of their collecting techniques, and
the level of training the volunteers receive (Penrose 1995). The monitoring activities and
methods of community groups often differ from that of professional scientists, due to
more complex and multiple aims of monitoring programs. While the principle aim of
scientific monitoring is data accuracy, many community groups seek primarily to educate
and inform the volunteers involved (Nicholson et al. 2002). The accuracy of equipment
used by community groups is constrained by cost of purchase and use (such as
microscopes or chemical products). A further constraint is the educative value of the
equipment: understanding the mechanisms involved in measuring a parameter can result in
a greater comprehension of the issues involved (Fore et al. 2001). For example, a turbidity
tube allows the user to see directly how turbid the water is, and thus better understand the
meaning of higher levels of turbidity than by simply recording the electronic reading from
a meter.
While volunteer monitoring provides opportunities for both enhancing citizen
engagement and collecting valuable data, organizers experience a classic tension when
deciding whether to devote resources to collecting quality data or to encouraging broad
citizen participation. This tension is exacerbated because scientists have traditionally been
sceptical about the accuracy of citizen-collected data (Penrose 1995).
34
To date, there have only been a few cursory studies comparing the results of
volunteer biological monitoring to professional monitoring (Mellanby 1974; Reynoldson
et al. 1986; Dilley 1991; Penrose 1995; Fore et al. 2001; Engel 2002; Nerbonne et al.
2008). In the UK, Reynoldson et al. (1986) found reasonable agreement between data
collected by school students and historical data from government biologists. In a similar
study, State of Washington researchers showed that trained volunteers who were
identifying organisms to family were able to assess water quality as effectively as
professional resource managers (Fore et al. 2001). Volunteer biological monitoring has
not fared as well in other comparative studies. In North Carolina, untrained volunteers
were able to identify higher quality streams, but were unable to differentiate the lower
quality streams (Penrose 1995). Sampling in Ohio indicated that volunteers were able to
determine if streams were attaining their designated use category, but had a tendency to
overrate the condition of water quality when compared to professionals sampling with the
same methods (Dilley 1991). Engel et al. (2002) conducted a two year study in which
they assessed the Virginia Save Our Streams Protocol. Initial testing revealed that
volunteer results consistently overrated ecological conditions, were not significantly
correlated with professional results, and did not accurately reflect the condition of a
stream. Engel et al. (2002) then modified the volunteer metric that relied only on taxa
presence, and developed a new multimetric, order-level index that was significantly
correlated with professional results.
Because of the disparity in the conclusions mentioned above and the importance of
this issue in the environmental regulation of freshwater natural resources, this study sets
out to conduct a thorough investigation of the effectiveness of volunteer biological
monitoring with benthic macroinvertebrates in streams. The objectives of the study were
as follows;
Implement a biological monitoring program in a Malaysian school.
Assess the benefits of monitoring for the participants involved.
35
Assess the accuracy and credibility of volunteer bio-assessments by
comparing them with assessments made by professional biologists.
Recommend modifications to improve the volunteer method should it not
compare favourably with professional results.
.
36
Materials and Methods
The purpose of the study was to compare the precision of assessments made by
volunteers with those made by professionals, and determine whether volunteer collected
data is appropriate for management and decision-making purposes in Malaysia. To test
this, a pilot study was implemented at a local school in Kuala Lumpur using amateur
water monitoring methods, modelled on the established volunteer water monitoring
program in Australia (Waterwatch). Alongside the amateur study, a professional
assessment of stream health was conducted in accordance with the Victorian EPA
Guidelines for „Environmental Management: Rapid Bioassessment Methodology for
Rivers and Streams‟ (2003) and the results compared. The concurrent sampling took place
in September-November 2009, with the volunteers and professionals collecting samples
within one month of each other. The participants in the study were grade 7 students from
a local high school, aged between 11 and 13 years old. They had no previous experience
in water monitoring, and only minimal training was provided prior to sampling. Training
was limited to only one classroom session where river ecology theory was taught, in
addition to a brief introduction on site.
As mentioned earlier, organisers of volunteer monitoring programs commonly
experience a classic tension of whether to devote resources to collecting quality data or
encourage broad participation and maximise the education value for participants.
Considering that this program was run in a school and the age of participants, the
monitoring protocol was designed to maximise the learning outcomes for students. There
was still an emphasis on collecting quality data, however, the primary goal was increasing
the students‟ awareness and knowledge of the impacts of river pollution.
Study Site
The study was conducted in a second order stream in Taman T.A.R in Ampang,
Selangor, Malaysia. The climate in the region is characterized as humid tropical, with the
highest rainfall experienced in October and November. The monthly average precipitation
was 222.35mm and the average air temperature ranged from 23.2 to 32°C for the months
of the study (World Meteorological Organisation 2010). The stream originates from
Hutun Rizab Ampang (Ampang Forest Reserve), one of the last remaining patches of
37
pristine forest surrounding Kuala Lumpur, and discharges into Sg. Klang. Three sample
sites were chosen to represent a gradient of human influence and disturbance. The
experimental stretch of stream starts in pristine tropical forest, then flows into a residential
area where it receives heavy inputs of storm water from the surrounding houses and
adjoining Kelab Darul Ehsan Golf Course Club. Each sample reach was 20m in length
and the entire experimental stretch was approximately 1km. The sites were chosen based
on ease of accessibility for the school students, and to examine the ability of the amateur
study to assess stream health over a range of conditions.
Figure 4.1 Map of Malaysia
Figure 4.2 Map of Taman TAR
Site 3
(Polluted) Site 2
(Disturbed)
Site 1
(Pristine)
38
Table 4.1 Description of Sampling Sites
Site Photos Site Description
Study Site 1 (Pristine)
The first sample site (N03°10‟02.6” E101°46‟36.3”) was
located in secondary forest, shaded by a dense canopy
with a substrate consisting of a mixture of cobble, gravel
and sand. Although the site is frequently visited by
humans for recreational purposes, it remains largely
undisturbed.
Study Site 2 (Disturbed)
The third sample site (N03°09‟59.0” E111°48‟27.1”) is
located approximately 100m downstream and runs along
Jalan 1, Taman T.A.R. The site is concreted, heavily
channelized and there is a storm water drain flowing into
the stream and run-off from the adjoining road. There is
little riparian vegetation and minimal canopy cover.
Study Site 3 (Polluted)
The Polluted site (N03°09‟55.3” E101°45‟58.3”) is
located at the end of Jalan 1 (see map). The site is
channelized, and concreted, with multiple inputs from
surrounding houses and adjoining the Kelab Darul Ehsan
Golf Course Club. There is no riparian vegetation or
canopy cover, with the water surface exposed to sunlight
throughout the day. There was extensive grey algae
growth and a strong chemical smell on the days of
sampling. The algae were later identified in the laboratory
as Compsopogon, common nuisance algae found in
nutrient-rich, warmer waters.
39
Professional Sampling Protocol
Water Sampling
In situ readings for specific conductivity, air and water temperature, dissolved
oxygen and pH, were taken at each site as well as light intensity using a lux meter (Table
4.2). Readings were taken in different areas and at different depths, and the mean for each
site calculated. Water samples were collected from each site for measurement of
dissolved phosphorus, nitrate, sulphate and ammonia (measured as ammonical nitrogen)
later in laboratory. Collection, sampling and transport of water samples were conducted in
accordance with the latest Victorian EPA guidelines „Sampling and Analysis of Waters,
Wastewaters, Soils and Wastes‟ (2000). Laboratory analysis was conducted in accordance
with the American Public Health Association: Standard Methods for the Examination of
Water and wastewater, 19th
Edition (1995).
Table 4.2 Environmental parameters measured at each study site
Factors Units Measuring Instruments
Temperature oC pH-Cond-Salinity (model: WP-81, TPS)
Conductivity mS cm-1
pH-Cond-Salinity (model: WP-81, TPS)
Flow-rate ms-1 Flowatch® Air or Liquid Flow Measurement Instrument
Oxygen ppm Mettler-Toledo
Light Lux light meter (model: LX-103, Lutron)
pH pH pH-Cond-Salinity (model: WP-81, TPS)
40
Macroinvertebrate Sampling and Laboratory Analysis
Professional sampling was conducted in accordance with Victorian EPA
standard guidelines for „Environmental Management: Rapid Bioassessment Methodology
for Rivers and Streams‟ (2003). Sampling at each site consisted of 5 composite Surber net
samples (400cm2
in area, 250µm). Sample points were selected to represent the diversity
of habitats within the stream i.e. at each site a sample was taken from leaf litter, riffles,
and pools. For each individual subsample, the Surber net was held in one location and the
area immediately upstream was disturbed for 15 – 20s in a square area equal to the size of
the net frame (0.2 m2). Rocks were moved and rubbed on all sides by hand to remove any
attached organisms. Sampling equipment was cleaned in between samples to avoid cross-
contamination. Samples were preserved in 70% ethanol for later analysis in the
laboratory. All macroinvertebrates collected in the field were sorted from the debris using
a stereo microscope and identified to species (or lowest taxonomic level possible) using
keys from „Freshwater Invertebrates of the Malaysian Region‟ (Yule and Yong 2004).
School Sampling Protocol
The school methods were modelled after the Waterwatch program. The
guidelines are outlined in the „Waterwatch Australia National Technical Manual‟ (2003).
The similarity between this and other community monitoring protocols worldwide allows
the study‟s outcomes to have broad relevance. On each day of sampling 18-22 students
participated in the study. Students were split into groups of 6-8 and assigned one of the
sites to sample. Each group was supervised and guided by at least one facilitator. The
role of the facilitator was to guide the students in the sampling method and encourage all
the students to be involved in monitoring.
Water Sampling and Analysis
The students collected water data using a LaMotte Low Cost Monitoring Kit to
measure pH, dissolved oxygen, dissolved nitrate, dissolved phosphate (as orthophosphate)
and coliform bacteria. The monitoring kit was designed to be simple and easy-to-use,
specifically for the purposes of environmental education. A water sample of a given
amount is taken and a tablet is added, the colour then changes to indicate a range or value.
41
After using the water monitoring kits for the first day of monitoring, it was
clear that they were giving unreliable results. It is possible that the kits used were faulty,
and for this reason the school‟s water chemistry results were left out of the final analysis.
Macroinvertebrate Sampling and Classroom Analysis
Macroinvertebrates were sampled using a triangular dip net (250µm mesh
size). Students were given a demonstration on the best sampling methods and encouraged
to find as many invertebrates as possible in 20-30mins. Each group of 6-8 students were
assigned 3 nets. Riffle habitats were sampled by holding the net downstream as the
operator disturbed the substratum by kick directly in front of the net opening. Rocks were
moved and rubbed on all sides by hand to remove all attached organisms. Stream edge
habitats were sampled by vigorously sweeping along the stream margins disturbing
bottom and bank substratum in areas of little flow. A different section of stream was
selected for each sample to avoid depletion effects caused by reworking the same area.
The contents of each sample were then transferred to a large sorting tray and students
„live-sorted‟ the invertebrates from the debris which were then preserved in 70% ethanol.
In a series of classroom sessions, students identified macroinvertebrates to order under a
stereomicroscope, with the aid of simple pictorial reference keys. Students were given
assistance in stream invertebrate identification by facilitators, and their samples were
checked for correctness before being recorded.
Participant Questionnaire
To investigate the effectiveness of river monitoring as a tool towards
increasing community knowledge and awareness on river pollution issues, participants
filled out a questionnaire on their experiences. Participants were asked to rate their
knowledge and understanding before and after the school monitoring program and to
suggest any possible improvements in the study which would make it more engaging
(Appendix I).
42
Data Analysis
The purpose of the study was to assess the accuracy and precision of volunteer
collected samples, by comparing them with professional samples, assuming the
professional samples yielded the correct results. To assess the correctness of the
professionally collected samples they were compared for differences between sites using
analysis of variance (ANOVA). Any significant observations at alpha = 0.05 were tested
post-hoc using Tukey‟s pairwise comparisons. Statistical analyses were performed using
SPSS (version 16) statistical analysis software.
As the school sampling was qualitative and lacked replication, the school‟s
data could not be compared to professional data using quantitative statistical methods.
Therefore, to compare professional and school assessments, a number of common
biological metrics were used to calculate stream health for both sets of data (Table 4.3).
The data were then graphed and the school results compared to professional to see if they
observed the same trends.
43
Table 4.3 Biological metrics used to compare professional and school samples.
Metric Expected
response to
disturbance
Description
Taxa Richness Decrease Biodiversity of stream declines as flow regimes are
altered, habitat is lost, chemicals are introduced,
energy cycles are disrupted, and alien taxa invade.
EPT
Abundance
Decrease EPT (Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera)
represent the three most sensitive orders to pollution
and are commonly used as bioindicators. EPT count
refers to the number of individuals
Beck’s Biotic
Index (BBI)
Decrease Invertebrates are classified into categories depending
on their response to organic pollution and a score is
given
Degree of
Dominance
Increase The proportion of the total individuals which fall in the
three most abundant taxa. As diversity declines, a few
taxa come to dominate the community assemblage. A
few opportunistic species that can tolerate modified
conditions replace more specialized types
% Tolerant
Taxa
Increase Species which are least sensitive to degradation tend
to thrive competitively as disturbance pressure builds
Pollution
Class
Distribution
Change to
community
dominated by
tolerant species
Taxa are ranked by their sensitivity to pollution and
the distribution across samples is assessed
44
The Beck‟s biotic index is a commonly used biotic index in river monitoring and
was first developed for the management of rivers in Florida, the United States. The index
is based on genus-level identification and was modified to include order-level
identification for the school study. Invertebrates are classified into three different
categories depending on their response to pollution (Table 4.4). Scores are then calculated
by the following equation:
Beck‟s Biotic Index Score = 2(n Class I) + (n Class II)
Where n = number of taxa in a certain pollution class
The Beck‟s biotic index was used because it is appropriate for school-aged children and
non-professionals, it is easy to use and understand, and easily modified based on the level
of taxonomic resolution used.
Table 4.4 Classification of invertebrates based on pollution sensitivity.
Class I – Pollution
Sensitive
Class II – Moderately
Tolerant
Class III - Tolerant
Ephemeroptera Odonata Oligochaete
Plecoptera Hemiptera Nematode
Trichoptera Megaloptera Hirudinea
Coleoptera Lepidoptera Gastropod
Decapoda, Brachyura Coleoptera Adult Diptera
Decapoda, Caridea
45
Results
Environmental Parameters
Water chemistry readings differed slightly between pristine and disturbed sites
however, were significantly different at the Polluted site. The polluted sight had
considerably low dissolved oxygen and high conductivity. The level of dissolved
nutrients also increased at the polluted site, especially sulphate (Table 4.5). Physical
characteristics differed markedly between sites. Riparian tree species richness, leaf litter
abundance and % canopy cover all decreased from pristine to polluted sites (Table 4.5).
Table 4.5 Chemical and physical characteristics of selected sites along Sungai Ampang.
Pristine Disturbed Polluted
Altitude (m) 104m 89m 79m
Air temperature (⁰C) 25.8 a
27.3 b
30.4 c
Water surface temp (⁰C) 26.1 a
27.2 a
29.9 b
Light (lux) 350 - 642 84600 - 12230 70000 - 84000
pH 7.51 a
5.92 b
6.68 c
Conductivity (µS) 25.19 a
35.80 b
359.00 b
Dissolved Oxygen (ppm) 9.75 a
9.20 a
2.10 b
Sulphate (mg/L) 0.80 0.60 3.70
Nitrate as N (mg/L) 0.77 <0.01 0.69
Phosphate (mg/L) 0.09 0.12 0.37
Ammonical Nitrogen (mg/L) <0.01 <0.01 0.41
Riparian tree species richness 35.4 12.3 5.80
Leaf litter abundance 45.8 17.6 7
% Canopy cover 60 15 0
*% Canopy cover = % of riparian canopy directly over stream. Leaf litter abundance = average number of
leaves found in each leaf pack sample. Air and water temperature, pH, Conductivity and dissolved oxygen
were compared using ANOVA. Any two values sharing a common lower-case letter are not significantly
different (ANOVA & Tukey‟s pairwise comparisons at α = 0.05).
46
Invertebrate Monitoring
In total 3358 invertebrates covering 77 species and 14 orders, were collected from
all three sites in Sg. Ampang during the professional study (Table 4.6). In comparison, the
school study collected 383 invertebrates belonging to 10 orders. Diptera was the most
abundant invertebrate group in professional samples, whereas, school samples were
dominated by Gastropoda and Decapoda.
Table 4.6 Summary of invertebrate monitoring results
Professional Monitoring School Monitoring
Diptera 1363 15
Ephemeroptera 488 31
Trichoptera 264 15
Gastropod 371 183
Hirudinea 270 0
Oligochaeta 235 0
Coleoptera 118 7
Odonata 90 25
Plecoptera 11 4
Decapoda 5 91
Hemiptera 5 9
Arachnida 3 0
Lepidoptera 2 3
Nematoda 2 0
Total 3358 383
47
Biological Metrics
Professional monitoring data was analysed using Tuckey‟s pairwise comparison to
analyse different biological metrics, and their ability to distinguish between the three sites.
Species richness, EPT abundance and Beck‟s biotic index found a significant difference
between sites (Table 3).
Table 4.7 Variation of invertebrate communities between sites in professional monitoring
were tested using analysis of variance (ANOVA). Significant differences (p<0.05) are
shown in bold.
Dependant variable
df F p
A. Variation between sites
Species richness 2, 12 6.899 0.010
EPT abundance 2, 12 17.569 0.000
Degree of dominance 2, 12 5.946 0.160
% Tolerant taxa 2, 12 3.090 0.083
Beck‟s biotic index 2, 12 14.336 0.001
48
Species Richness
Professional monitoring showed that species richness did not significantly differ
between pristine and disturbed sites, but there was significantly less species present at the
polluted site (Figure 4.3A). School monitoring results observe the same pattern as
professional monitoring (species richness decreasing from pristine to polluted sites).
Figure 4.3 A – Mean species richness per 20cm2 of professional monitoring (± 1 SE, n =
10). Any two values sharing a common lower-case letter are not significantly different
(ANOVA & Tukey‟s pairwise comparisons at α = 0.05). B – Total taxa richness of school
monitoring per site.
49
EPT Abundance
Professional monitoring showed a significant difference between EPT abundances
at all three sites. The pristine sight had a high abundance, a small presence was found at
the disturbed site, and none were found at the disturbed site (Figure 4.4A). School
monitoring only found EPT taxa present at the pristine site (Figure 4.4B).
Figure 4.4 A – Mean EPT (Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera) abundance per
20cm2 area of professional monitoring (± 1 SE, n = 10). Any two values sharing a
common lower-case letter are not significantly different (ANOVA & Tukey‟s pairwise
comparisons at α = 0.05). B – Total EPT abundance per site of school monitoring.
50
Degree of Dominance
The disturbed and polluted sites had the highest degree of dominance, meaning
that the macroinvertebrate community present is dominated by three particular species
which are more tolerant (Figure 4.5). School monitoring compares favourably with
professional results, showing the same trend: degree of dominance increasing from the
pristine to polluted sites.
Figure 4.5 A – Mean degree of dominance (proportion of three most abundant taxa
species/ 20cm2) of professional monitoring. Any two values sharing a common lower-
case letter are not significantly different (ANOVA & Tukey‟s pairwise comparisons at α =
0.05). B – Degree of dominance of school monitoring.
51
Proportion of Tolerant Taxa
Professional results showed the disturbed and polluted sites recording a
significantly higher proportion of tolerant taxa than the pristine sight (Figure 4.6A). The
school monitoring showed the same trend as professional; but the school monitoring found
a significantly smaller proportion of tolerant taxa at the disturbed site (Figure 4.6B).
Figure 4.6 A – Mean proportion of tolerant tax per 20cm2
area of professional monitoring.
Any two values sharing a common lower-case letter are not significantly different
(ANOVA & Tukey‟s pairwise comparisons at α = 0.05). B – Proportion of tolerant taxa
per site of school monitoring.
52
Beck‟s Biotic Index
The Beck‟s biotic index decreased significantly from the pristine site to the
polluted (Figure 4.7). School monitoring results correlate very strongly with professional
monitoring (Figure 4.7B).
Figure 4.7 A – Mean Beck‟s biotic index score per 20cm2 of professional monitoring.
Any two values sharing a common lower-case letter are not significantly different
(ANOVA & Tukey‟s pairwise comparisons at α = 0.05). B – Beck‟s biotic index score per
site of school monitoring.
53
Pollution Class Distribution
Professional results show that the pristine sight is dominated by class I
invertebrates, the disturbed site dominated by class III invertebrates with a small number
of class I &II present, and the polluted site consisting of only class III invertebrates
(Figure 4.8). School results show the same trend as professional monitoring, however,
failed to collect any class III invertebrates at the pristine site.
Figure 4.8 Distribution of invertebrate pollution classes of A – professional monitoring
and B – school monitoring. Invertebrates were categorized into pollution categories based
on Beck‟s Biotic Index (Table 4.4).
54
Student Awareness and Understanding of River Issues
Student responses to the questionnaire, which was filled out after completing the
monitoring program, indicate that student awareness and understanding of river health and
pollution impacts has improved significantly. Over 90% of participants considered their
knowledge and awareness of river issues and river health to be either „good‟ or „very
good‟ after their involvement in the program (Figures 4.9 & 4.10).
Figure 4.9 A – School students‟ awareness of river issues before the monitoring program
(average response: „Somewhat‟) B - awareness after completing the monitoring program
(average response: „Very Good‟)
55
Figure 4.10 A – School students‟ knowledge of rivers and river health before the
monitoring program (average response: „A Little‟) B - awareness after completing the
monitoring program (average response: ‟Good‟)
56
Discussion
Professional Monitoring
Professional results indicate that the health of Sg. Ampang deteriorates across a
gradient of human influence, and increasing urbanisation. The pristine site is very
healthy; dissolved oxygen was high, riparian vegetation is healthy and diverse (Table 4.2),
and biological sampling showed a diverse invertebrate community with high abundance of
EPT (Figure 4.4A) and high Beck‟s biotic index score (Figure 4.7A).
The disturbed site is highly modified with the stream becoming channelized for
drainage purposes and the substrate concreted. Water quality was still high, with water
chemistry readings similar to the pristine site (Table 4.1), high species richness (Figure
4.3A) and EPT presence (Figure 4.4A). However, the invertebrate community changes
dramatically from pristine to disturbed, with a sharp increase in tolerant invertebrates,
namely chironomids (Figure 4.6A), and decrease in sensitive EPT organisms (Figure
4.4A). This is due to the lack of habitat available for invertebrates such as cobbles,
boulders and leaf packs. Furthermore, the channelization and concreting of the stream bed
can increase the „flashiness‟ of flow as there are no bends and natural substrate to slow the
movement of water. These sorts of environments are commonly dominated by
Chironomidae as they have short life-cycles and can regenerate quickly after a large
„flushing event‟ (Koperski 2009). This demonstrates how monitoring water chemistry
alone is not sufficient to assess the ecological health of a stream.
The polluted site was extremely degraded with very low dissolved oxygen, high
conductivity and increased dissolved nutrients, especially sulphate (Table 4.5). The
invertebrate community was completely different from the disturbed site with only one
species in common; Simulium sp. The community was made up completely of tolerant
species (Figure 4.6A), dominated by Hirudinea (leeches) and Gastropoda (snails). Both
Hirudinea and Gastropoda have been used as bioindicators of heavy pollution in the
United States (McDonald et al. 1990), and some species could possibly be used as
bioindicators in Malaysian streams.
57
Comparing School and Professional Assessments
The major difference between the professional and school studies was the lack of
replication in the school‟s samples. Unfortunately this means that the school and
professional‟s data cannot be compared using quantitative statistical methods. Therefore,
assessments were compared using a number of biological metrics which are commonly
used in invertebrate monitoring.
The school study collected considerably fewer invertebrates than the professional
study. However, this does not invalidate the student‟s data. When the school data is
analysed using biological metrics, their data clearly shows the same trends observed in the
professional assessments. In particular, species richness (Figure 4.3) and Beck‟s biotic
index (Figure 4.7) successfully illustrated the effect of human disturbance. Comparative
results were similar to Reynoldson et al (1986), who compared high school collected data
with historical government data and found that although the school collected significantly
less invertebrates, the trends were similar in both studies. It also demonstrates the need to
use a range of metrics when determining stream health.
School results were effective in classifying the health of the pristine site and
detecting the gross pollution at the polluted site, but had trouble classifying the milder
disturbance at the disturbed site. School results show a sharp decrease in taxa richness
(Figure 4.3), a complete absence of EPT taxa (Figure 4.4B), and a very low Beck‟s biotic
index score. This would indicate low water quality and the presence of pollution. This
conclusion is different from professional monitoring, which found that water quality was
high, and that changes to the invertebrate community were a result of a highly modified
habitat. The small sample size and low level taxonomic resolution of invertebrate
identification meant that school samples lacked the detail required to make informed
conclusions.
The inability of school monitoring to classify subtle changes in stream health is not
restricted to this particular program. Brinkhurst (1993) stated that “simplified indices
often based on an assumption that groups (such as insect families) behave in a uniform
way, can only be applied to simple, obvious examples of gross disturbance”. In this case,
it was not the use of biological indices which affected the accuracy of school assessments,
58
as professional results used the same indices to assess stream health. Rather it was the
lack of representativeness of the school samples which affected the accuracy of their
assessments. Table 4.6 shows the significant difference between professional and
monitoring results. School sampling failed to collect a number of key taxa, and the
relative abundance of some taxa is considerably different. School monitoring had a
tendency to collect larger organisms such Decapoda (prawns and crabs) and Gastropoda
(snails), but failed to collect smaller organisms such as Diptera, which was the most
abundant invertebrate order in professional samples.
Sources of Inaccuracy
If volunteer monitoring is to become a reliable source of information on water
quality trends for decision-makers it is important to understand the sources of inaccuracy
and bias in each aspect of monitoring. As mentioned earlier, school samples yielded
significantly less macroinvertebrates than professional samples. This is primarily due to
the different methods used for collecting, sorting and identifying samples, as well as the
use of untrained monitors.
The Surber sampling method for collecting invertebrates has previously been
reported as yielding a higher abundance of individuals, and rarer taxa than kick-net
samples (Storey et al. 1991). Also, samples were collected by experienced biologists, who
can recognise areas in a stream where there is a large abundance of invertebrates. For the
majority of participants in the school program, this was their first experience monitoring
invertebrates. This can be overcome with increased training of participants before
sampling and greater supervision of inexperienced monitors when they are collecting
samples.
The differing method for sorting invertebrate specimens from debris was a major
source of differences in the two sets of results. Professional samples were preserved and
sorted in the laboratory with the aid of a microscope, whereas, school samples were sorted
using the live-sort method; live specimens are picked from the sample by eye, on site.
Obviously, sorting samples in the laboratory with the aid of a microscope will result in a
greater number of individuals, however it would be hoped that live-sort method would still
yield a representative sample. As has been reported in previous studies (Nichols 2006;
59
Nerbonne et al. 2008), the live-sort method can result in a bias towards larger organisms
and fast moving organisms, but those not fast enough to evade capture. This meant that
school samples failed to collect smaller organisms such as chironomids, which were
abundant in professional samples at the disturbed site, and ultimately influenced the final
assessment of the site.
A common issue in invertebrate monitoring is the establishment of appropriate
taxonomic levels. In this study, order-level identification was sufficient in detecting gross
pollution at the polluted site. Previous studies have shown that order-level identification
can be applied as an „early warning system‟ to identify gross changes in stream quality
(Bouchard et al. 2005). It has been hypothesized that there is a hierarchical response in
macroinvertebrate communities to increasing pollution. Species and genus will enable
detection of subtle impacts because species exhibit a wide range of ecological
characteristics and tolerances to a variety of disturbances. When family-level is applied,
these more subtle and specific impacts may be missed because the loss of species can be
masked by the replacement of more tolerant congeners (Jones 2008). The replacement of
taxonomic groups occurs in steps as stress increases. First the individual is affected, and
then the species, genus, family, etc. are removed from a community as levels of stress
increase (Jones 2008). As resolution becomes coarser, the ability to detect impact
decreases to the point where only gross pollution can be identified (Metzeling et al. 2002).
Therefore, species or genus-level identification should be the goal of any professional
biological monitoring program. Species-level identification can be very time consuming
and requires special knowledge and would not be a realistic goal for volunteer programs,
unless participants were very experienced and highly trained. Marshall et al (2006)
conducted a cost/benefit analysis on different levels of taxonomic identifications. Cost
was measured as the amount of skill, effort and time required to process samples, and
plotted against benefit which was measured in terms of the percentage of the pattern
between samples that was retained in each data set. The study recommended family level
as the best resolution for analysing patterns in macroinvertebrate assemblages, as subtle
changes can still detected for significantly less cost than species or genus (Marshall et al.
2006).
60
Shortfalls of Chemical Monitoring
It was mentioned earlier that school monitoring undertook water chemistry tests
using a LaMotte Low Cost Water Monitoring Kit. However, the results were unreliable,
possibly due to faulty kits, and excluded from the final analysis. In the absence of
professional chemical analyses, the erroneous results may not have been detected. This
highlights the shortfalls of chemical analyses in community monitoring; obtaining reliable
data requires expensive equipment which is beyond the means of most community
monitoring projects. Although chemical analyses can identify contaminants that may be
present (as long as they are analysed for), biological monitoring can integrate responses to
combinations of all contaminants and to other sources of environmental stress, thereby
indicating overall effects in a water body (Bartram et al. 1996). Biological monitoring is
also important in situations where there are a range of contaminants whose biological
effects may be synergistic or antagonistic and would not be detected through chemical
measurements (Bartram et al. 1996).
A disadvantage of biological methods is that it can be difficult to relate observed effects to
specific aspects of environmental disturbance, such as contamination or natural changes.
For example, methods do not always provide precise information on the identity of a
contaminant unless supplementary information from chemical analyses is available. For
this reason, community biological monitoring can act as an „early warning system‟ to
identify the presence of pollution and the need for further intensive chemical analyses.
Participant Awareness and Knowledge
Surveying of participants found that knowledge and awareness of river health and
issues increased significantly. Average awareness of river issues and the impacts of
pollution increased from „somewhat‟ to „very good‟ (Figure 4.9), and knowledge of river
eco-systems increased from „a little‟ to „good‟ (Figure 4.10). This demonstrates the
educational value of environmental monitoring. Monitoring allows participants to
understand local ecosystems firsthand and build a sense of appreciation and ownership
over the sites they monitor.
61
Modifications to Improve Monitoring Program
Analyses of school monitoring results show the program was able to detect
degradation as a result of gross pollution but struggled to classify milder disturbance. This
program was run and organised to maximise the learning outcomes for students, and this is
used as a starting point for comparisons with professional results. Upon analysis of
results, modifications to the protocols can be made to improve accuracy and detail of
results, without compromising the education value.
One of the major shortcomings of the school monitoring program was the lack of
replication of samples. This meant that data could not be analysed statistically, leaving
only qualitative descriptions. Having a minimum of three replicate samples per site will
allow for more detailed analysis, statistical comparisons with reference sites, and ensure
sampling is representative. Validating volunteer collected data through standard statistical
methods will ensure the reliability of monitoring results as a source for decision-makers.
The live-sort method resulted in significantly less individuals than professionals,
and also a bias towards larger organisms. This can be overcome by stressing to volunteers
the importance of picking all specimens from the sample, and by making sure there are
enough resources such as tweezers and sorting trays for all participants. Having the
volunteers work in teams so that they can check the quality of each other‟s samples can
provide an important safeguard against such biases.
Order-level identification of invertebrates was successful in detecting gross
pollution, although it lacked the level of detail required to detect more subtle forms of
disturbance. Where possible, invertebrates should be identified to family so that subtle
changes to macroinvertebrate assemblages can be detected, as well as rare and threatened
taxa. This will still be a challenge in Malaysia as there is little known on the
macroinvertebrate fauna of the region. To achieve this there needs to be continued
improvements in taxonomic keys and tools including more research into the pollution
ecology of all macroinvertebrate taxa. These improvements can only come through
continuing investigations into the life history of individual species and integrating this
knowledge with applied aspects of biological monitoring. Moreover, there is a need for
the identification of reliable bioindicators, which can not only detect the presence or
62
absence of pollution, but can be diagnostic (indicate type of pollution). If monitoring can
have a diagnostic capability, it can be of great use for management and decision-making.
Conclusion
Macroinvertebrate monitoring provides a great learning opportunity for schools in
Malaysia, and has the ability to increase community knowledge and awareness of river
pollution impacts. Although professional monitoring is able to capture much more detail,
the purpose of biological monitoring is not to describe the macroinvertebrate community,
but to identify potential impacts or differences from the reference condition. School
monitoring was able to detect gross examples of disturbance, but struggled to classify
milder forms of disturbance. In order to improve the accuracy and precision of school
assessments, modifications to the protocol need to be made to allow standard data
validation methods. In addition, increased training and supervision of inexperienced
monitors will decrease the amount of volunteer bias.
63
Chapter 5 – Community Management and Monitoring
of Kelana Jaya Lakes
Introduction
This chapter describes the community approach to the restoration of Kelana Jaya
Lakes. The program was initiated by Global Environment Centre (GEC) in 2002 as a
response to rising levels of pollution in the lake system. GEC is a Malaysian-based
environmental NGO which promotes community participation in natural resource
management. Information was compiled from semi-structured interviews with program
co-ordinators, various newspaper articles and GEC publications.
Kelana Jaya Lake
Malaysia has very few natural lakes but past tin-mining activities and construction
of water reservoirs have created many man-made lakes and ponds. Jurisdiction for lakes
and pond management is not clear, and in most cases, these lakes are under the
responsibility of local authorities and private land-owners. As such, priority towards
maintaining good water quality in lakes and ponds was not realised until the water crisis
which hit Kuala Lumpur in 1997 (Chin 2001). Although water from lakes and ponds
could provide ample supply of non-potable water, it is generally heavily polluted. Ex-
mining ponds and lakes mainly serve as flood retention areas, developed for recreational
uses or reclaimed for other developments (Chin 2001).
The Kelana Jaya Lake is one of many urban lakes in Selangor, Malaysia. Kelana
Jaya Lakes are ex-mining ponds in the Sungai Damansara River Basin managed by the
Local Government, the Petaling Jaya City Council (MPPJ). They were initially managed
solely as flood retention areas until they were developed as a public park in 1996. The
lakes (4 in total) are still functioning as a flood retention basin, but form an important
feature of the Kelana Jaya Municipal Park and are a favourite spot for locals for
recreation, fishing and bird watching.
64
Pollution Problems
Shortly after the lake was opened up to the public in 1996, a gradual decline in the
water quality was observed. The main cause was increased wastewater, rubbish and
sewage overflows draining into the lakes from the storm water drainage system, as a result
of the rapid development in the surrounding catchment areas. The Petaling Jaya district
went from being a satellite township of Kuala Lumpur in the 1990s, to being granted city
status in 2006. The area is expanding as a centre for industrial and housing development,
with over 500,000 residents in a 51km2 area (Osman et al. 2008). To deal with the rapid
population growth a sewage treatment facility was built directly adjacent the lakes.
Unfortunately, poor planning and design resulted in the continuous overflow of untreated
sewage from the oxidation ponds into the lakes. The ponds could not cope with the load
from 6,000 households, as it was built with a capacity for 4,000 families (Chew 2003).
The loss of natural wetland plants in and surrounding the lakes has also completely
changed the ecosystem. They were replaced with rock, concrete and landscaping plants
during the park‟s development in 1996. The park was once a haven for water birds such
as the Waterhen (Ruak-Ruak) and native fish species which drew local anglers. However,
habitat loss and high pollution loads quickly degraded the biodiversity of the area. Water
birds became scarce and fish populations were dominated by more tolerant, non-
indigenous species such as Tilapia and Flower Horns (Mohkeri 2004). Water hyacinth
(Eichornia crassipes), an invasive aquatic weed, dominated the surface of the lakes and
high nutrient inputs resulted in increased algae growth and the lake becoming eutrophic
(Mohkeri 2002).
A university study found that the lake was polluted with heavy metals, including
high levels of cadmium, originating from nearby electroplating and car industries (Yap et
al. 2003). According to Department of Environment standards, the water is classified as
„class V‟, meaning that it is very polluted, unhealthy and not even suitable for human
contact (Yap et al. 2003). A separate study found high concentrations of cadmium in fish
species which were regularly caught and eaten by locals (Ismail et al. 2004).
65
Management
The pollution problems were partly caused by fragmented management of the
lakes and the surrounding catchment areas among different agencies, as well as a lack of
awareness and participation of the local community and other stakeholders. The Petaling
Jaya Municipal Council (MPPJ) lacked the human resources or technical expertise on lake
management and restoration. The sewage oxidation pond located next to the park is
managed by Indah Water Konsortium, the company entrusted with dealing with the
nation‟s sewage, since the privatization of sewage services in 1994. The adjacent sewage
pond was not properly maintained due to management constraints and could not cope with
the sewage load from surrounding houses. Aware of the problem, Indah Water had
difficulties with local authorities acquiring land and permits to build another storage pond
(Chew 2003). The flood drainage system, which is managed by Alam Flora Sdn Bhd, a
private company contracted by the local authorities to maintain the drainage systems, was
carrying untreated sewage and wastewater from surrounding housing and commercial
areas. With such an array of stakeholders involved in the park‟s management, assigning
responsibility and co-ordinating management interventions was very difficult.
Project
With pollution rising in the lake to levels which threatened public health and local
authorities proclaiming a shortage of resources to restore the lake, frustration grew within
the local community over the lack of action. In 2002, Global Environment Centre (GEC)
spearheaded a rehabilitation program aimed at improving water quality through promotion
of Integrated Water Resource Management, with a special emphasis on community
involvement. The project was run in collaboration with the MPPJ along with input from
Danish NGO-DANIDA, and funded by a grant from the Global Environment Facility
(GEF) (Mohkeri 2004).
Planning and Design
Consultation with various key stakeholders from both federal and state government
agencies was undertaken for 18 months prior to project development. Getting support
from the local authority was essential to the implementation of the project and United
Nations Local Agenda 21 (LA21) provided the platform for the involvement of the MPPJ.
66
LA21 is based on the global action plan towards development in the 21st century resulting
from the Earth Summit in Rio De Janeiro, Brazil, in June 1992. LA21 was first introduced
in Malaysia in 2000 as a pilot program involving four local councils around the country,
including Petaling Jaya (Osman et al. 2008). The adopted program aims to:
(i) balance economic, community and environmental interests and
considerations into projects, processes and strategies;
(ii) fully engage a wide variety of stakeholders‟ groups to get a range of views
and interests, particularly those who will benefit from or be affected by the
outcome of the planning process; and
(iii) create mechanisms and strategies that can be maintained over the long term
to address various issues in an in-depth and sustained matter (Osman et al.
2008).
To implement the program a Local Agenda 21 Petaling Jaya Committee was set up
with the Mayor of MPPJ as the chairperson. The Committee consists of 37 members,
comprising of representatives from NGOs, community-building organisations, religious
institutions, the private sector, government agencies, and the MPPJ. Having the project
run as a LA21 initiative was of great benefit as the LA21 Committee is chaired by the
mayor and allowed for linkages with other key stakeholders: residents associations,
education department etc.
During the project planning phase, the local community was informed of the
project, and provided opportunity to give their input and feedback through the use of a
feedback form, workshops and dialogues. Approximately 500 brochures and
questionnaires were disseminated amongst community centres, schools and housing areas
over the period of one month. The community were asked on their needs and concerns
with regard to the water quality of the Kelana Jaya Lake ecosystem, as well as their
interest in participating in environmental monitoring and rehabilitation activates. As a
result the Friends of Kelana Jaya Park (FoKJ) was established with over 400 members. A
project steering committee of 15 was set up to represent the local community and special
interest groups such as anglers and birdwatchers.
67
Through consultation with the various stakeholders and local community, the
project objectives were set as follows: The project aims at promoting sustainable
management of Kelana Jaya Lakes through the participation of stakeholders, especially the
local community. It focuses on:
1. Enhancing awareness and understanding of IWRM among key stakeholders.
2. Strengthening community groups including NGOs, the private sector and special
interest groups, and promoting more active participation in lake management.
3. Establishing partnerships between community groups and government agencies for
information sharing and joint activities.
4. Help improve water quality and the status of biodiversity at Kelana Jaya Lakes
(Kailasam 2009).
The rehabilitation program of Kelana Jaya Lakes was formally launched during a
local community carnival on October 2002. The launching event and promotion through
the media assisted the project team in developing awareness on the project among the
local communities.
Community Monitoring and Evaluation
An important aspect of the program is the local community‟s ability to conduct
their own health assessments of the lakes. From 2005, GEC offered volunteers from the
FoKJ, one day courses on water quality monitoring to become „park rangers‟. The course
consists of classroom theory sessions on freshwater ecosystems, and introduces them to
the concept of IWRM. Volunteers are then taken to different river sites and the lake to
conduct physical, chemical and biological monitoring. Physical monitoring involves
volunteers “using their senses” to assess the overall health of the lake. Visual
observations are taken of the clarity and colour of the water, the amount of rubbish within
and surrounding the lakes, and the quality of vegetation along the shoreline. Biological
monitoring involves recording any sightings of vertebrate animal life such as birds,
reptiles or fish. Invertebrate samples are taken using a small fish net. Invertebrate
abundance and taxa richness are recorded as an indicator of ecosystem health, though
invertebrates are not identified. Chemical testing is carried out using a Lamotte low cost
68
water monitoring kit. The monitoring kit was designed to be simple and easy-to-use,
specifically for the purposes of environmental education. A water sample of a given
amount is taken and a tablet is added, the colour then changes to indicate a range or value.
The parameters measured are:
Temperature
pH,
Dissolved oxygen,
Nitrogen
Phosphate
Turbidity
E.coli
All results are recorded into a rubric entitled the „Lake Report Card‟, and a score
for each monitoring type (physical, biological and chemical) is calculated, then those
scores are added up to give the overall score for lake health (Appendix II). After
completing the course, the rangers are presented with their own test kit as well as a
certificate of completion of the course. The volunteers agree upon a schedule so that the
lake is monitored at least once a month. After they collect the data they send a short
summary to GEC which is then uploaded on the website. Monitoring results are also
displayed in the information kiosk located in the middle of the park. .
GEC concede that the volunteer monitoring is not scientifically accurate and
lacks the precision and depth of professional monitoring. However, the result does give a
qualitative description of the health of the lakes and has the ability to track changes over
time. The primary focus of the monitoring program is to provide the community with a
means to be involved in the evaluation and decision-making process. The data collected
by monitors can help inform management at the planning and policy stage, and can also be
used to critique management by providing data on the progress or success of a given
management intervention. The course is also designed to enhance the awareness and
knowledge of participants, to encourage a move towards more sustainable behaviours and
attitudes. For example, the importance of not pouring oils and chemicals down the drains
is emphasised. It is hoped that by learning about their environment, local monitors share
the knowledge they gather with other members of the community, as one of the
participants stated upon the completion of the course:
69
“The environment is ours to protect. We can use what we learned
today to protect our waterways and also bring our families for picnics
at the lake so they too will learn about nature and its importance.”
(Jayaraj 2005)
Having local residents trained to recognize indications of pollution and
degradation allows them to act as “the eyes and ears” of the lake, providing an
early warning system to pollution events.
Achievements
The project was successful in engaging local residents with the issue and was able
to establish the FoKJ with over 400 members and a steering committee of 15 people. By
establishing a local community group who are genuinely concerned about the management
of the part and lake, it was easier to mobilise the community to participate in the
management of the park. It also means that the local authority has a more regular source
of information for whatever issues are happening on the ground, and can make use of the
community local action. MPPJ also provides facilities for FoKJ to hold regular monthly
meetings at one of the city buildings adjacent to the park.
There are also other opportunities for the wider public to get involved in the
project. A hotline for the public to raise their concerns has been established to allow two-
way communication with the local authority. A website has been set up
(www.kelanajayapark.com) to provide an avenue for disseminating information on the
project activities, events, and results from park ranger monitoring are also uploaded.
There is also a community booth and notice boards in the park where information and
monitoring results are displayed.
The rehabilitation program and associated events have garnered a lot of publicity
in local media. There have been a number of community planting days where volunteers
replanted natural vegetation around the lake to bring back wildlife. The Malaysian
Anglers Association helped organise an alien fishing competition in a bid to remove non-
indigenous fish species. GEC held an event called „My Drains Day‟, where volunteers
and members from the residents association cleaned rubbish and silt from drains and
marked drains with a fish symbol to remind residents that the drains lead to the lake. The
70
„gotong-royong‟ (village clean-up) of the drains was targeted in three particular housing
areas which were identified as contributing the highest amount of pollution through their
wastewater, and events were held in each area in three consecutive weeks. All these
events were widely reported by the local newspapers and television networks, and gave
good publicity to the importance of the lakes and the rehabilitation efforts.
Perhaps the biggest achievement of the program was the upgrade of the adjacent
sewage treatment plant so that untreated sewage no longer overflowed into the lake and
effluent bypassed the lake and was discharged further downstream. Without the pollution
load coming from the sewage plant, and reduced wastewater and solid waste, total
incoming pollution reduced by over 60% (Mohkeri 2002). This demonstrates the
effectiveness of community participation in influencing the decision-making process.
Finally, the program demonstrated the successful implementation of IWRM.
Community participation was established as an essential component to management of the
lakes and strong relationships and communication lines were built between all relevant
stakeholders. There was a new emphasis on controlling pollution at the source by
encouraging sustainable behaviours in surrounding households, rather than finding
treatment solutions for the lake. Management had shifted from a top-down, closed-
sectoral driven, to more transparent, co-operative management bodies.
Challenges and Lessons Learned
A key component of the Kelana Jaya Park program and many of GEC‟s projects is
the concept of „civic science‟, which is a way of approaching community participation in
environmental management. The concept is new in Malaysia and can be summarised by
the graphic below;
Figure 5.1 Civic science approach to community engagement (Kailasam 2009; p 6)
The concept builds on a four step process designed to engage the local community and
gain their support for action;
71
1. Create awareness on the issues surrounding that particular community/location.
2. Provide knowledge to the community on the facts, statistics and the role they play
as the cause and receiver of pollution and impacts.
3. Provide skill on how to monitor and manage resources effectively.
4. Assist the community in taking action to improve their local environment.
Overall it is a systematic approach for integrating the local community within natural
resource management and can be applied to a wide variety of environmental issues.
Gaining Community Support
Experience in this project and others have shown that it is crucial to develop trust
and a feeling of ownership toward development and planning of project activities and
solutions. The initial task of community mobilization can be very challenging.
Environmental awareness and understanding is very low in Malaysia, as it is in many
developing countries, where economic considerations are given priority, and
environmental degradation is considered to be an inevitable consequence of economic
prosperity. Therefore, GEC utilise a „soft approach‟ to engage the community, based on
finding common ground, making a connection between the community and project
benefits (quality parks, better health etc) and slowly building trust within the community.
It is a long process and patience is needed to assure them of the importance and viability
of the project, and to build their capacity to achieve results. It is also important to include
the community at the very beginning of the planning process, before the development of
an action plan. Including the community‟s considerations and ideas in the design can
build a sense of ownership over the project. Gaining the community‟s trust and active
involvement is also essential in stimulating government commitment.
Sustaining and Nurturing Community Support
In most cases, community projects require a large amount of time to establish, and
sustaining community support can be a difficult challenge. Projects commonly fail when
the results fail to meet the expectations and the community becomes disengaged. To
avoid this, it is important not to set high goals that are difficult to achieve initially. By
72
completing small tasks properly and doing them well, it is possible to demonstrate the
success of the project to the community. It is important to recognise the efforts of the
community and publicise their achievements. For instance, FoKJ have been highlighted in
the local media several times over the past few years and this has motivated them to
continue their efforts.
Project managers need to understand and accept that there are limitations and
constraints to the amount of effort the community can devote to a project. Some members
may be retired, or working full-time, or have families to attend to. They are not able to
devote time regularly to the project or may have difficulty fitting in to the work plan.
They may not have the experience, therefore require constant guidance. It is important
that the needs of the community are not sidelined and their involvement isn‟t beyond their
capacity.
Projects should be run in a transparent manner, especially in regards to fund
allocation. It is important that the community is aware of where funds are being allocated;
otherwise mistrust can quickly build within the community.
Building Relationships between Stakeholders
GEC has managed to forge strong partnerships with government agencies by
having regular meetings and discussing proposed project actions together, understanding
each other‟s needs and limitations. The best way to ensure participation from government
agencies is to invite them to become project steering committee members. In this manner
they play an important role in contributing ideas and resources to the project.
During the Kelana Jaya Lakes program government agency representatives from
the Department of Environment, DID and local authorities regularly attended meetings
and training workshops on river management. Many of the government officers have
good technical and infrastructure knowledge, but at times can lack the skills and
understanding in managing environmental resources in a more natural and inclusive way,
as described in IWRM. By including government officials in the training workshops and
regular meetings, a two-way dialogue was created where the community can have direct
access to government agencies, and officials can gain an insight into what is required to
manage a resource more effectively which meet the needs of the community.
73
It is important that each stakeholder‟s responsibilities are clearly defined in order
to avoid overlapping of resources and ensuring accountability among all parties.
Moreover, it ensures that everyone feels involved and is contributing their part to the
success of the project.
Conclusion
Shortly after Kelana Jaya Lake Park was opened in 1996, there was a gradual
decline in water quality due to sewage overflow from the neighbouring treatment plant
and wastewater from surrounding housing areas. LA21 provided an essential platform for
the implementation of a community management program in 2002. An important feature
of the program was the opportunity for participants to conduct their own ecosystem health
assessments. This built a sense of ownership and responsibility among locals to reduce
their impacts and pressure authorities to restore the health of the lake. The project was
successful in establishing a local community group who were committed to restoring the
health of the lake, influencing local decision-making by having the neighbouring sewage
plant upgraded, and building strong relationships with all stakeholders involved in the
management of the lake and surrounding catchments.
74
Chapter 6 – Conclusions
This study used two lines of investigation to examine the potential of community
monitoring in Malaysia. A pilot community monitoring program was implemented in a
high school and the results compared to professional monitoring, to assess their accuracy
and precision. In addition, an established community monitoring program was analysed
and program managers interviewed on their views and experiences which affect the
widespread adoption of the practice.
Comparing the assessments of school monitoring to those made by professionals, it
was found that although students were able to detect gross examples of degradation, they
struggled to classify milder forms of disturbance. Increased training of volunteers and
modifications to the monitoring protocol to allow for data validation will increase the
accuracy and precision of their assessments.
The participatory approach utilised in the Kelana Jaya Lakes program, allowed for
the inclusion of the community‟s needs and concerns in the decision-making process. The
monitoring of the lakes‟ health by the local community gave them a sense of ownership
over the project and empowered them to become involved in the management of the lakes.
The results show that community monitoring has the ability to address a number of
the key objectives outlined in the Malaysian Water Vision (Lee and Facon 2001; p25).
The objectives are briefly discussed below:
a) Increased awareness on the economic, social and environmental value of water
among decision-makers and politicians and the public
The community monitoring of Kelana Jaya Lakes demonstrated to participants the
impacts of the surrounding housing areas on the health of the lake, and motivated them to
adopt more sustainable behaviour. In addition, students‟ awareness of river issues
increased significantly after their involvement in the monitoring program. Monitoring
exposes participants to local ecosystems, building both an understanding and appreciation
for natural areas.
75
b) Promotion of river education
The hands-on activities of environmental monitoring provide great learning
opportunities for both schools and the wider community and have the potential to be
adopted in schools across Malaysia.
c) Significant reduction of pollution from point and non-point sources; j) Resource
assessment and monitoring
The wide spread adoption of community monitoring will allow for more sites to be
monitored on a continuous basis. Monitoring data can be used to track long-term changes
in river health and can also be used as an „early warning system‟ of high pollution events.
d) Full restoration of rivers and return of aquatic life
Monitoring is crucial for assessing the effectiveness of restoration efforts, and
identifying why different restoration programs succeed or fail. The Kelana Jaya Lakes
program demonstrated the effectiveness of integrating community monitoring into
restoration programs, giving locals a sense of ownership over the project.
e) Water ecosystems protection
The use biological parameters by community monitors provides direct information
on the condition of groups of biota resident in the ecosystem, and therefore on the
condition of the ecosystem. Thus, they address management issues more directly and can
provide a more sensitive time-integrated assessment of river condition than physical or
chemical parameters.
f) Frequent dialogue with all stake holders in the water sector; g) Participatory
approach in decision-making
The Kelana Jaya Lakes program showed that by including the community in the
restoration and monitoring process, strong relationships can be built with the community
and local authorities. Monitoring data can be used to help inform decision making and
also stimulate government action. The increased interaction with the community can give
76
officials an insight into what is required to manage a resource more effectively which meet
the needs of the community.
Recommendations
Community monitoring should be adopted as a key management tool towards
achieving Malaysia‟s Water Vision. Schools are an ideal vehicle for community
monitoring, as it can be easily integrated into school curricula and offers a great
educational experience for children. LA21 provides a platform to involve the wider
community in environmental management, and community monitoring programs can be
used to enhance restoration efforts as have been prescribed in the Water Vision.
Monitoring data has the potential to inform management and planning, however,
decision-makers need to be aware of the limitations in the accuracy and precision of
volunteer assessments. To improve the accuracy of results, monitoring protocols should
include standard data validation techniques, and increased training and supervision of
inexperienced volunteers.
Biological monitoring in Malaysia is still in its infancy and greater research work
is required to understand the impact of pollution on the life-histories of benthic
macroinvertebrates, and identifying reliable bioindicator species.
Study Limitations
There are many forces in Malaysia which have not been included in the
considerations including political will, economics and constraints. To analyse the political
regime and how policies are agreed upon in Malaysia would be a whole research project
on its own. The recommendations put forward are based solely on the Malaysian Water
Vision goals and objectives and what needs to be done for them be achieved.
77
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Appendix I – Student Questionnaire
Adopt-a-Stream Questionnaire
How would you rate your knowledge of rivers and river health before the adopt-a-stream
program?
1
None
2
Very Little
3
Somewhat
4
Good
5
Very Good
How would you rate your knowledge of rivers and river health after the adopt-a-stream
program?
1
None
2
Very Little
3
Somewhat
4
Good
5
Very Good
How would you rate your awareness of river issues before the adopt-a-stream program?
1
None
2
Very Little
3
Somewhat
4
Good
5
Very Good
How would you rate your awareness of river issues after the adopt-a-stream program?
1
None
2
Very Little
3
Somewhat
4
Good
5
Very Good
How could the program be improved?
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85
Appendix II – Kelana Jaya Lake Report Card
86
Appendix III - Explanatory Statement
87
Appendix IV – Consent Form