Download - Tool-based approach for ﬁ nding complex concurrency issues ...€¦ · insanely difficult to understand (without a tool) deadlock scenarios that developers can triage and fix very

DevelopingSoftwareinaMulticore&MultiprocessorWorldTool-based approach for fi nding complex concurrency issuesand endian incompatibilities

Tokeeppacewithcustomerdemandsformorefunctionalityandspeed,

softwareteamsaremovingawayfromsingleprocessorarchitectures

atarapidrate.Inparticular,embeddeddevicesthatusedtohave

onechiptoperformaconstrainedsetoftasksarenowworkingin

heterogeneousprocessorenvironmentswhereprocessorsareusedfor

networkconnectivity,multi-media,andawholevarietyofrequirements.

AccordingtonewdatafromVDCResearch,thistrendisonlyexpected

toaccelerate:engineersexpectthatintwoyearstime,thenumberof

singleprocessorprojectswilldropbyhalf.

Thebusinessimpactofthisgrowingcomplexityisstark:multicoreandmultiprocessorsoftwareprojectsare4.5Xmoreexpensive,have25%longerschedules,andrequirealmost3Xasmanysoftwareengineers.1

Oneareainparticularwherethisgrowingcomplexitycanhaveadramaticimpactoncostandscheduleoverrunsisintheareaofsoftwaretestingandcodeinspection.Amulticore/processorenvironmentcanaddexponentialcomplexitytoeffectivelyidentifyingerrorsinsoftware.Therearetwoareasinparticularthathavetheabilitytodragtheproductivityofasoftwareteamthroughthefloor:concurrencyerrorsandendianincompatibilities.

Thiswhitepaperwilldiscussthesetypesofissuesindetail,explainhowKlocwork’ssourcecodeanalysisengine,KlocworkTruepath™canbeusedtoaddressthem,andwalkthroughtwoexamplesoftheseproblemsinprominentopensourceprojects.

GWYNFISHER,CTOWHITEPAPER | SEPTEMBER2010

WWW.KLOCWORK.COM

1VDCResearch,“NextGenerationEmbeddedHardwareArchitectures:DrivingOnsetofProjectDelays,Costs

Overruns,andSoftwareDevelopmentChallenges”,September2010.

Figure 1 | Processing Architecture Used in the Current Project and Expected in Next Two Years (Percent of Respondents)

Current Project

Don’t know2.9%

Don’t know8.5%

Multicore andmultiprocessor

5.2%

Multicore andmultiprocessor

19.4%

Multicore9.3%

Multicore21.4%

Multi-processor

20.8% Multi-processor

20.6%

Singleprocessor

61.8%

Singleprocessor

30.1%

Expected in 2 Years

Developing Software in a Multicore & Multprocessor World | Klocwork White Paper | 2

TacklingConcurrencyIssuesandEndianIncompatibilitieswithKlocworkTruepath™______

Concurrency IssuesSourcecodeanalysisisaprocessbywhichtheexpected,orpredictedbehaviorofaprogramatruntimeisexercised,alongeveryconceivablecontrolflowpath,inorderthataberrantsituationsbefound,diagnosed,anddescribedtotheauthorinsuchawayastomakethemsimpletofix.Inthetypicalcourseofevents,notiminginformationororder,otherthanthatinherentinthecontrolflowgraph,isinterpretedorrequiredforthisanalysistotakeplace.

Concurrencyissuesposeacomplexsetofchallengesforanalysis,astheydorequiretimingororderinginformationtobepromotedintothecontrolflowgraph.Someareobviouslylessdifficulttofindthanothers,suchasthreadsthatreservelocksandperformtime-consumingactivitiesbeforereleasing.Thistypeofbehavior,whilstnotleadingtoacriticalfailuresuchasadeadlock,canleadtofrustrationonthepartoftheenduserofthesoftware,forexampleinthefaceofanunresponsivedevice.

Themorecomplextypeofconcurrencyissues,suchasdeadlocks,requireanadditionaltypeofanalysisover-and-abovethatperformedwhenfindingnon-order-relatedbugssuchasmemoryleaksorbufferoverruns.Inthiscase,wemustperformtwodifferenttypesofanalysis:onethatgathersandpropagateslocklifecyclebehavior,andanotherthatcananalyzethewholeprogramspaceandfindconflictsinthisbehavior.

KlocworkTruepathmakesthispossibleviatheadditionofanewconcurrencyanalysisenginetoitsexistingtoolchain:

Inthisfigureyoucanseethatdatarelatingtolocklifecyclesisgatheredbythenormalanalysisengine,andoncethishasbeenproducedforallmodulesinthesystem,thewholeprogramspaceisthenanalyzedbythenewconcurrencyanalysisenginesothatloopsinthelifecyclegraphcanbefound,whichequatetodeadlocks.

Considerafunctionthatoperatesasfollows:

Figure 2 | Klocwork Truepath tool chain provides concurrency analysis engine after control flow graph analysis and build emulation.

lock_t Lock1, Lock2;

void foo(int x) { if( x & 1 ) { lock(Lock1); lock(Lock2); } else lock(Lock1);}

Compile

• Emulate native build

• Build control flow graph

Symbolic logic

• Analyze control flow graph

• Perform dataflow analysis

Concurrency

• Analyze lock dependencies


Youcaneasilyseebyinspectionthatwhenpassedanoddnumberasitsparameter,thisfunctiondefinesadependencyofLock2uponLock1.Failinganoddparameter,Lock1isstillreserved,butthistimethereisnodependencyofLock2uponLock1atthelocalscope,althoughtheremaystillremainthatdependency(oranother)ataninter-proceduralscope.

Therefore,wehavetwodiscretetypesofquestionstoaskwhenperformingtheanalysis:

1. Symboliclogicquestions:a. Isthereavalidcontrolflowthatgetsustocallfunctionfoo()with

anoddparameter?b. Isthereavalidcontrolflowthatresultsinfoo()beingcalledwith

anevenparameterfollowedbyacalltoanotherfunctionthatresultsinanotherlock(e.g.Lock2)beingreservedbeforeLock1isreleased?

2. Lockdependencyquestions:a. Ifeitheroftheseareso,isthereanyothersituationinthe

program’snaturalcontrolflowwherebyacounter-dependencyofLock1uponLock2canbereached,potentiallyresultinginadeadlock?

ThefirsttypeofquestionisansweredbyKlocworkTruepath’ssymboliclogicengineduringthenormalcourseofprogramanalysis,justasanyothertypeofdefectisanalyzedforinter-proceduraldataflowsthatcanorcannotoccur.

Thesecondtypeofquestionisthenansweredbytheconcurrencyanalysisengine,fedbythecollectionofallpossibledependencieswithintheprogramspace.Theresultiswhattendstobeasmallsetofincrediblydifficulttofind(manually),andinsanelydifficulttounderstand(withoutatool)deadlockscenariosthatdeveloperscantriageandfixveryquicklywithinthenaturalcourseoftheirimplementationtasks.

Endian IncompatibilitiesWhilstitmaybetruethatthereare10kindsofpeopleintheworld,aswitchfromalittleendianplatformtoabigendianplatformwillmuddythatimpressionconsiderably.Anadvisorofoursrecentlyinformedmewithgleethathe’dfinally“sethisMSB”(havingpassedhis64thbirthday),butstorethatinnibblerepresentationonanunexpectedendianarchitectureandhe’dberegressingtothenurseryoncemore.

Inshort,endianrepresentationsaffecthowthehostprocessorstoresintegraltypesinmemory.Considering32-bitintegers,eachofwhichconsistsoffourbytesofmemory,theprocessorcanchosetoreadandwritethosefourbytesinavarietyoforders,althoughtraditionallyonlytwoareused:

»» Littleendian,inwhichthebytesarewrittenintheorder0,1,2,3»» Bigendian,inwhichthebytesarewrittenintheorder3,2,1,0

Thispicturebecomesslightlymuddiediftheprocessoractuallywriteswordsatatime(thisismostlyafairlyhistoricalrepresentationnow,butwementionitforcompleteness),andappliesitsendianassumptionstoeachword:

»» Littleendianstillwritesbytesintheorder0,1,2,3»» Bigendian,however,maynowwritebytesintheorder1,0,3,2

Howevertheprocessorstoresandreadssuchtypesisentirelyatitsowndiscretionandthebusinessofnobodyelse.Until,thatis,thedeveloperdirectstheprocessortowritesuchdataintoamediumfortransmission,asopposedtostorageinmemory.

Transmissionmedia,whichcouldbesockets,files,pipes,oranyotherinter-processorvector(e.g.interruptsthatcausedatatobewrittentothePCI-Expressinterface,ortotheserialbus,or…),areaddressedbytheprocessorinexactlythesamewayasmemoryunlessspecificallytoldtodootherwise.


Thus,abigendianprocessorwillwritea32-bitintegerontoasocketinbyteorder3,2,1,0.IftheCPUontheotherendofthesocketusesalittleendianarchitecture,thenobviouslyavaluewrittenontothesocketwillbeinterpretedcompletelydifferentlywhenread.Forexample,avalueof29,writtenbyabigendianprocessorandreadbyalittleendianprocessorwillbeinterpretedas53,504–notasmallcorrectionbyanymeans.

Preparingaprogramforusewithheterogeneousprocessorarchitecturesthereforeinvolvesfindingeveryintegraltypethateverhitsatransmissionvectorthatcouldlegitimatelytargetanotherprocessorandensuringthattheread/writeoperationinvolvedtransformsthedatainto/fromaneutralrepresentationthatbothsidesagreeon.Inaprogramofanysizeatall,obviouslythisisanon-trivialtask.

KlocworkTruepathcanhelpdevelopersinthistaskasitnowincludestheabilitytovalidatetyperepresentationusagesymmetricallyasthosetypescrosstransmissionvectorboundaries.Thatis,thedataflowenginewithinKlocworkTruepathautomaticallyvalidatesthattypesthatarewrittendirectlytoatransmissionvectoraresubjecttohost-to-neutralformattransformationbeforethewriteoperationtakesplace.Likewise,integraltypesreadfromatransmissionvectoraretrackedtoensurethattheyareappropriatelytransformedpriortothefirstattemptedusageonthehost.

Forexample,considerthefollowingfunction:

Thissimplefunctionmakesthebasicassumptionthatthereaderontheotherendofitssockethasthesameprocessorarchitectureasthesender.Thismightbetrue,ormoreaccuratelyitmightbetruetoday,butwhatdesignercaneverlookfarenoughintothefuturetoknowthatitwillalwaysbetrue,regardlessofmarketshifts,greatideasthatmarketinginternshave,etc.

KlocworkTruepath,uponanalysisofthisfunction,willpointout:

Value ‘x’ is used in host byte order, but should be used in environment/network byte order.

Adeveloperversedininter-architecturaldevelopmentwillnaturallymodifythisfunctiontotransformthevalueofthevariable‘x’priortotransmission:

Likewisewhenitcomestoreadinginformationacrossatransmissionvector,KlocworkTruepathtracesthedataflowofanyreceivedintegraltypestoensure,inexactlytheoppositewaytosending,thatanysuchvaluesaretransformedtohostformatpriortotheirfirstusage.

void foo(int sock){ int x;

for( x = 0; x < 256; x++ ) if( send(sock, &x, sizeof int) < sizeof int) return;}

void foo(int sock){ int x, xt;

for( x = 0; x < 256; x++ ) { xt = htonl(x); // … or some other suitable form if( send(sock, &xt, sizeof int) < sizeof int) return; }}


OpenSourceCaseStudies________________________________________________________________________________________

Lock Contention: SQLite ca. 2006Longaddressedbythedevelopersofthisgreatopensourceproject,adeadlockwasreportedintheexecutionofthedatabaseengineandwastracedtocodethatwasspecificallyintendedtoguardagainstsuchanoccurrence(asisusuallythecase).Althoughcomplicatedtounderstand,andcertainlytheeventualfixresultedinanalmosttotalrewriteoftheoffendingmodule,requiringdaysorperhapsweeksofintensemanualdebuggingandthought-modelingwithoutatoolsuchasKlocworkInsight,thisverynastybugwasfoundandcorrectlydescribedbyKlocworkTruepathduringananalysisthattookmereminutes.

Considertherequirementtoimplementasimplisticsingletonrecursivelockcapabilitywithinanenvironmentthatdoesn’tsupportsuchconstructs.Usingreferencecounting,wecanquitesimplyguardtheunderlyingnon-recursivelockandmanageitslifecycleappropriately.Ofcourse,thisbeingaparallelworld,weneedtouseanotherlocktoguardthereferencecountthatwe’reusingtoguardthereallock,makingtheimplementationjustabitmorecomplicated.

Thedesignofthismightlooksomethinglikethefollowingexample:

NowIcancallenter()multipletimes,simulatingsomeofthecapabilitiesofatruerecursivelock,andaslongasIremembertocallleave()anequalnumberoftimesthelifecycleoftheunderlyingnon-recursivelockismanagedcorrectly:

lock_t lock1, lock2;int refCount = 0;

void enter() { reserve_lock(lock1); if( refCount == 0 ) reserve_lock(lock2); release_lock(lock1); refCount++;}

void leave(){ reserve_lock(lock1); refCount--; if( refCount == 0 ) release_lock(lock2); release_lock(lock1);}

void foo(){ // real lock is reserved enter(); if( i-really-want-to ) { // only the reference count is affected enter(); leave(); } // now the real lock is released leave();}


Nowconsidertherequirementtoimplementanabstractionoverthread-specificdatastorage.Toensuresafetywhenallocatingsuchastructure,thedatabaseengineusesthesingletonrecursivelockdescribedabovetoprotectitsactivitieswithanimplementationthatsimplifiesasfollows:

Tosimpleinspection,thisappearsquitecorrectasitcallsleave()thesamenumberoftimesasenter()andthusshouldbeconsideredwellbehaved.Unfortunatelylifeintheparallelworldisrarelysimpletoanalyze,andthiscaseiscertainlymorecomplicatedthanitfirstappears.

ConsideratwocoreCPUexecutingtwothreads,bothcallingcreate_dataatveryslightoffsetsintime.

Thefirstthread—let’scallourthreadsThread1andThread2—beginsexecutingcreate_data()andsuccessfullycallstheenter()function.Thisresultsintheunderlyinglock,lock2,beingreservedtoThread1:

Nowlet’sassumethatThread2beginsitsexecutionofcreate_data()duringthetimethatThread1isactive,andbeforeitreleaseslock1:

Onefurtherassumptionmakesthescenariowhole:Thread1atthismomentisinterruptedbytheoperatingsystem,losingitstimeonchip.Crucially,thishappensbeforethereferencecountisupdated.(Checktheimplementationofenter()andyou’llseethattheauthorunfortunatelyleftthereferencecountupdateoutsideofwhatissupposedtoguardaccesstoit.)AsthereferencecountwillthereforestillreadzeroforThread2,itwillattempttoreservelock2,resultinginThread2blocking(aslock2isalreadyownedbyThread1):

int tlsCreated = 0;

data_t* create_data(){ static data_t* tls;

enter(); if( tlsCreated == 0 ) tls = create_thread_data(); tlsCreated = 1; leave(); init_data(tls); return tls;}

Thread 1create_data() enter() refCount = 0 reserve(lock1) reserve(lock2) release(lock1) refCount = 1

Thread 1 Thread 2create_data() enter() refCount = 0 reserve(lock1) reserve(lock2) create_data() enter() release(lock1) reserve(lock1)


Uponreturnfrominterrupt,Thread1isreleasedandresumesexecutionwhereitleftoff,incrementingthereferencecountandreturningfromtheenter()function.Itsexecutionofcreate_data()continues,leadingtoacalltotheleave()function,whichunfortunatelyattemptstoreservelock1beforedoinganythingelse:

DuetothefactthatThread2iscurrentlyblocked,waitingonlock2,andcurrentlyownslock1,Thread1willnowblockonitsownattempttoreservelock1.

Inshort,thisisaclassiclock-orderinversioncontentioncausedbyapoorlyguardeddataitem,whichwhensubjecttoracecondition(beingreadbyonethreadwhilstintheprocessofbeingupdatedbyanother)causesonethreadtoreservelocksinorderwhiletheotherthreadattemptstoreservethemoutoforder,resultinginadeadlock.

Withtheraceconditionfixed,thissingletonwilloperatecorrectly,althoughaspreviouslydescribedtheauthoractuallychosetocompletelyrewritethismodule,providingamoreusefulre-entrantmutualexclusioncapabilityformultiplethreads,i.e.removingthesingletonsemantic.

Thread 1 Thread 2create_data() enter() refCount = 0 reserve(lock1) reserve(lock2) create_data() enter() release(lock1) reserve(lock1) interrupted refCount = 0 reserve(lock2) blocked

Thread 1 Thread 2create_data() enter() refCount = 0 reserve(lock1) reserve(lock2) create_data() enter() release(lock1) reserve(lock1) interrupted refCount = 0 reserve(lock2) blocked refCount = 1 return leave() reserve(lock1); blocked


Figure 4 | Control flow description from Klocwork Truepath

Figure 3 | Source listing from SQLite


Endian Design Assumptions: PostgreSQLIncontrasttothesituationdescribedinrelationtoSQLite,thefindingsinthiscasestudydon’tpointtobugsinsoftwareasmuchastheydotolimiteddesigndecisionsandtheimpacttheyhaveonhowsoftwareisthenconstructed.

Specifically,whendesigningamulti-processapplication,thearchitectisfacedwiththefundamentaldecisionofwhetherallofthoseprocessesaregoingtobesupportedononechip,orwhetherforthesakeofscaleorpureflexibility,thesoftwarewillsupportbeingdeployedandexecutedonmultiplechips/hosts/devicesatonce.

InthecaseofPostgreSQL,oneoftheprocessesdetachedfromthemainkernelisthestatisticscollector,somethingthatactsmoreorlessasaperformancemonitor,allowingtheDBAtounderstandwhat’sgoingonwithinthekernel,withoutnecessarilyimpactingtheperformanceofthekernelwhilstrunningreportsormonitorsagainstthosestatistics.Thisprovidesaniceanalogforatypicalapplication-layerprocesssetthatneedtointeractwitheachother,butwhichduetodesigncouldbeimplementedtooperateoneitherthesameCPU/hostoracompletelydifferentone.

Toimplementthis“lowtouch”collectionandreportingmechanism,thePostgreSQLdesignerschosetofork()aprocess,presumablyonthesameCPUormulti-CPUpackage,andthenuseanasynchronoussockettotransmitdatafromthekernelprocesstothecollector.Usingthepgstatapplication,theDBAcantheninteractwithwhateverthechildprocesshascollectedatanypointintime.

Allofthisisencodedwithinthemodulesrc/backend/postmaster/pgstat.c.

Becauseofthewaythatthisfundamentaldecisionwastakeninthisparticularcase,thedesignerchosetoencodedatatransmissionbetweenthekernelandthecollectorusinghost-nativerepresentation.Forexample:

Figure 5 | Data representation analysis in action


Inthisexample,it’ssimpletoseetheassumptioninallitsglory,asthatdatamembermsg.msg_hdr.m_sizeisreadanduseddirectlyoffthewire,inwhatcouldbe,butisn’tinthiscase,networkorder.

Nowlet’sassumethatanewgenerationofdesignersrevisitthisdecisionandinsteadplaceemphasisonscaleandflexibilityovereaseofimplementation.Nowtheydecidetoplacethestatisticscollectorprocessonanarbitrarynodeinthehardwaredesign,ratherthanonthesamenodeasthekernelprocess.

Withthisdecisioninplace,theassumptionthatnetworkbyteorderandhostbyteorderarethesamecannolongerbemadeingeneral.Portingtothisnewassumptionsetcouldtakesignificanttime,bothfordevelopersandforthetestcrew,facedwithputtingtogetheramatrixofCPUs/hoststhatembodytheplethoraofrepresentationswecanexpecttosupportinthefield.

Usingatool-drivenapproach,however,thisentireeffortcanbecollapsedtoasingleanalysispass,takingminutesintotal,toseeareportofwhat’sinvolved.Inthiscase,thedesignerswouldbefacedwiththefollowingendianvulnerabilitiesthatwouldneedtobeaddressed(alongwiththeobviouslogisticalissuesaroundhowtoplacetheprocessontherighthost/CPU,ofcourse):

pgstats.c:line1988:functionpgstat_recvbuffer() Value‘msg.msg_hdr.m_size’isusedinnetworkorder.

pgstats.c:line1443:functionpgstat_send() Value‘*msg’isusedinhostbyteorder.

Thesetwosimpleissuesmightbethoughtofasthewholeproblemdomain.However,lookingfurtherintowhatthismoduleiscapableof,certaininformationcanbepersistedacrosssessionsusingastatisticsfile.Ifwefurtherourdecisiontoallowtheprocesstobespawnedonheterogeneoushardware,wemightwellcontinuethatspreadbyallowingdifferentinstantiationsofsaidprocesstooccuronheterogeneoushardware,thusrequiringpersistentdatatobeendiansafe:

pgstats.c:line2556:functionpgstat_read_statsfile() Value‘format_id’isusedinenvironmentbyteorder. Similarerrorscanbefoundonline(s):2610,2684,2717,2740.

pgstats.c:line2312:functionpgstat_write_statsfile() Value‘format_id’isusedinhostbyteorder. Similarerrorscanbefoundonline(s):2351,2384,2411,2412.

Armedwiththisinformation,thedesignercanmakeallrequiredupdatestoremoveendianvulnerabilityfromtheircodeinonepass.

Conclusion________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Thecomplexityofthisproblemdomainisvast,sothere’snoonesolution,tool,orapproachthatwilladdressallyourproblems.Developmentteamsneedtoequipthemselveswithgoodtools,smartdesignassumptions,andevensmarterdeveloperstoreconcilethefeatureracebeingdemandedbythemarketandtheunderlyingplatformcomplexitythatimplies.Whenitcomestoselectingatool,sourcecodeanalysisshouldbeonyourshortlistasitoffersacompellingmixofscalability,flexibilityandtheabiltiytoaddressabroadsetofissuesthatwillhelpyoutoensuretheoverallqualityandsecurityofyourcode.

IN THE UNITED STATES:15 New England Executive ParkBurlington, MA 01803

IN CANADA:30 Edgewater Street, Suite 114Ottawa, ON K2L 1V8

t: 1.866.556.2967f: 613.836.9088www.klocwork.com

AbouttheAuthor_______________________________________________________________________________________________________

GwynFisheristheCTOofKlocworkandisresponsibleforguidingthecompany’stechnicaldirectionandstrategy.Withnearly20yearsofglobaltechnologyexperience,Gwynbringsavaluablecombinationofvision,experience,anddirectinsightintothedeveloperperspective.Withabackgroundinformalgrammarsandcomputationallinguistics,Gwynhasspentmuchofhiscareerworkinginthesearchandnaturallanguagedomains,holdingseniorexecutivepositionswithcompanieslikeHummingbird,FulcrumTechnologies,PCDOCSandLumaPath.AtKlocwork,Gwynhasreturnedtohisoriginalpassion,compilertheory,andisleveraginghisexperienceandknowledgeofthedevelopermindsettomovethepracticaldomainofstaticanalysistothenextlevel.

AboutKlocwork_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Klocwork®offersaportfolioofsoftwaredevelopmentproductivitytoolsdesignedtoensurethesecurity,qualityandmaintainabilityofcomplexcodebases.Usingprovenstaticanalysistechnology,Klocwork’stoolsidentifycriticalsecurityvulnerabilitiesandqualitydefects,optimizepeercodereview,andhelpdeveloperscreatemoremaintainablecode.Klocwork’stoolsareanintegralpartofthedevelopmentprocessforover700customersintheconsumerelectronics,mobiledevices,medicaltechnologies,telecom,militaryandaerospacesectors.

© Copyright Klocwork Inc. 2010 · All Rights Reserved

Download - Tool-based approach for ﬁ nding complex concurrency issues ...€¦ · insanely difficult to understand (without a tool) deadlock scenarios that developers can triage and fix very

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