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PATTERNS OF HYPERTEXT
Mark Bernstein
chief scientist, Eastgate Systems, Inc.
Patterns Of HypertextThe complexity and unruliness of the complex webs of links we create has freuently
led to calls for !structured! or otherwise disciplined hypertext "##$"%&$"'($. )hile calls
for clearer structure ha*e tried to a*oid, consolidate, or minimi+e links, it is now clear
that hypertext cannot easily turn its back on complex link structures. )here it was once
feared that the cogniti*e burdens of large, irregular link networks would o*erwhelm
readers, we find in practice that myriad casual readers flock to the docu*erse. The
growth of literary and scholarly hypertext, the e*olution of the )eb, and the economics
of link exchange all assure the longterm importance of links.
Since large linked constructs cannot be wished away, it is time to de*elop a *ocabularyof concepts and structures that will let us understand the way today-s hypertexts and
Reprinted from Proceedings ofHypertext '98, Frank Shipman,Elli Mylonas, and KajGroenback, eds, ACM, NewYork. (c) Copyright 1998 by
Association for ComputingMachinery. All Rights Reserved.Reprinted by permission.
Copyright 1999 by theAssociation for ComputingMachinery, Inc. Permission tomake digital or hard copies ofpart or all of this work forpersonal or classroom use isgranted without fee providedthat copies are not made ordistributed for profit orcommercial advantage and thatcopies bear this notice and thefull citation on the first page.Copyrights for components ofthis work owned by others thanACM must be honored.Abstracting with credit ispermitted. To copy otherwise, torepublish, to post on servers, orto redistribute to lists, requiresprior specific permission and/ora fee. Request permissions fromPublications Dept, ACM Inc., fax+1 (212) 869-0481, [email protected].
mailto:[email protected]://www.eastgate.com/mailto:[email protected]://www.eastgate.com/ -
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)eb sites work. rogress in the craft of writing depends, in part, on analysis and
discussion of the best existing work. /n appropriate *ocabulary will allow us both to
discern and to discuss patterns in hypertexts that may otherwise seem an impenetrable
tangle or arbitrary morass. The reader-s experience of many complex hypertexts is not
one of chaotic disorder, e*en though we cannot yet describe that structure concisely0 the
problem is not that the hypertexts lack structure but rather that we lack words todescribe it.
Looking for Patterns
This paper describes a *ariety of patterns of linkage obser*ed in actual hypertexts.
1ypertext structure does not reside exclusi*ely in the topology of links nor in the
language of indi*idual nodes, and so we must work toward a pattern language through
both topological and rhetorical obser*ation. Instances of these patterns typically range
in scope from a handful of nodes and links to a few hundred. These patterns "%2$"#$ are
components obser*ed within hypertexts, rather than system facilities 3see "4'$5 or plansof a complete work. Typical hypertexts contain instances of many different patterns, and
often a single node or link may participate in se*eral intersecting structures.
I do not argue that the obser*ed structural patterns are uniuely desirable, that superior
patterns cannot be de*ised, or indeed that the writers of these hypertexts meant to use
these patterns at all. I do propose that by considering these patterns, or patterns like
them, writers and editors may be led to more thoughtful, systematic, and sophisticated
designs. These patterns are offered, then, as a step toward de*eloping a richer
*ocabulary of hypertext structure. Examples are drawn from published standalone
hypertexts as well as from the )eb. )eb sites are readily accessible but *olatile6 a site
which today illustrates one structure may be unrecogni+able tomorrow. ublishedhypertexts are less accessible, but are also more permanent. Moreo*er, some important
patterns depend on dynamic links links which depend on the reader-s past
interactions. The )eb itself is statefree, and while *arious implementations of state
dependent beha*iors for the )eb ha*e been proposed, statedependent beha*ior remains
an exceptional case in )eb hypertexts.
Some pattern examples are drawn from literary fiction. I do not belie*e these patterns to
be useful exclusi*ely for fiction0 rather, a *ariety of economic and cultural factors
sometimes encourage experimentation in narrati*e rather than technical writing or
7ournalism. Moreo*er, hypertext fiction tends to be written for general audiences and
may remain a*ailable indefinitely, while speciali+ed reference manuals and 1elpsystems may be shortli*ed and less readily a*ailable to the general reader. 8or does our
interest in structural *ocabulary necessarily imply a structuralist or poststructuralist
stance0 we need to describe phenomena, whate*er our theoretical beliefs "9:$";$. Two
patterns Tree and Seuence ha*e been described many times in the hypertext
literature ";4$"49$. Both are useful, indeed indispensable, and can be found in almost
any hypertext.
Cycle
In the Cycle, the reader returns to a pre*iously*isited node and e*entually departsalong a new path.
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=olb-s Socrates In The Labyrinth"9($ discusses the role of the
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participant eual and resists the tendency to concentrate attention at the directories
themsel*es.
/ conto#r";%$"9&$ is formed where cycles impinge on each other, allowing free
mo*ement within and between the paths defined by each cycle. Mo*ement among the
cycles of a contour is easy, and infreuent links allow more restricted mo*ement fromone contour to another.
Co#nterpoint
In Co#nterpoint, two *oices alternate, interlea*ing themes or welding together theme
and response.
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Digure ;. In Samplers, a list of links connecting two writing spaces becomes an
interstitial *oice in counterpoint to the main text.
Interstitial counterpoint adds hypertext commentary notionally situated between writing
spaces. Interstices ha*e long been used for uotation, both epigraphic and ironic ";#$.
?inks in ?arsen-s Samplersappear in a dialog box a con*entional list of links that
Storyspace authors can use to build an ad hoc multitailed link. The dialog is designed
to be purely functional, showing a list of links by pathname and destination, but ?arsen
has chosen path names so that this list itself can be read as an interstitial poem. Edward
Dalco independently disco*ered the same, unexpected
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funhouse, the content and concerns of 8ewkirk-s 1ypereaders may, through habit or preconception, form an excessi*ely narrow *iew of a
hypertext. Because tangles are difficult to fit into a simple, preconcei*ed structure, they
encourage browsing and disco*ery. Tangles may extend through many writing spaces
";2$ or, like Siegel-s entryway, may be limited to a single Montage. Tangles are
freuently encountered near the beginning of a hypertext, where they disrupt orientation
and create a sense of depth, but
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Moulthrop terms hypertexts robotic when the logic of the hypertext, not reader choice,
tends to dictate the course of a reading "(:$. >obotic tangles like Mary=im /rnold-s
!?ust! "9$ combine complex dynamic structure, rich in broken cycles and other
structural cues, with a dearth of interacti*e choice. This structure ser*es to entice the
reader while frustrating the uest for release and resolution.
Sie)e
Sie)essort readers through one or more layers of choice in order to direct them to
sections or episodes. Sie*es are often trees, but may be multitrees, /s, or nearly
hierarchical graphs0 different topologies may all ser*e the same rhetorical function.
)here the choice is informed and instrumental, sie*es become decision trees. The
Cahoo directory, for example, pro*ides a large sie*e that readers tra*erse to find topical
entry points to the )eb. Sie*es need not be represented as explicit hierarchies0 the 1ot
Sauce M
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Montage is a fact of life in the design of museums and art galleries, where disparate
*isual works are collected in a limited space. Thoughtful architecture and cle*er
arrangement may minimi+e the disrupti*e effects of montage, while 7uxtaposition may
suggest new insights. Some arthistorical hypertexts attempt to recreate the architectural
montage of real or *irtual museum spaces0 often, as in the masterful(us)e d'*rsay+
isite irtuelle, the sub7ect of such a hypertext becomes the museum itself rather thanits collections ";($.
Trellis "'%$ is extensi*ely perhaps primarily concerned with describing and
managing montage.
Neig*%or*oo'
/ Neig*%or*oo'establishes an association among nodes through proximity, shared
ornament, or common na*igational landmarks. Hn*arying thumbtabs, a na*igation bar,
or a miniature site map can all inform readers that the lexia in which they appear are!close! in some planned way. @ust as a prominent church spire shows a walker that two
spots separated by long, winding streets are still in the same neighborhood "(#$,
deliberate display of commonality in a hypertext can express relationships that
indi*idual links might not emphasi+e "'$. 3>osenberg-s episodes "44$ are closely related
to our 8eighborhoods0 !neighborhoods! emphasi+es the presence of patterns of meaning
in the hypertext while !episode! places greater emphasis on the experience these
structures create in the reader-s perception. See also >ossi-s-a.iational %ontexts
pattern"4'$5
Dor example, 8ielsen has described the inherent conflict in large )eb sites between
establishing the identify of a particular hypertext and the identity of the site itself "4#$.If each page of a )eb site is separately designed and optimi+ed for its own purposes,
the site as a whole may lose its coherent identity and its brand name may be obscured.
/s a solution, 8ielsen proposes adopting a uniform na*igational frame or subsite as a
8eighborhood pattern that organi+es the collecti*e site, adding layers of incremental
na*igational ornament to subsites as needed to create subsidiary identities.
isual motifs often reinforce the identity of 8eighborhoods in order to establish
organi+ational context or to call attention to relationships among concepts. )hen(us)e
d'*rsay+ isite irtuelle";($ adopts the structure of the museum to shape the hypertext,
it effecti*ely echoes subtle issues of history, historiography, and politics that ha*e
shaped both the composition and presentation of the national art collection. Millet leadsto
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The Split+oinpattern knits two or more seuences together. SplitF@oin is indispensable
to interacti*e narrati*es in which the reader-s inter*ention changes the course of e*ents.
If each decision changes e*erything that happens subseuently, authors cannot allow the
reader to make many decisions while keeping the work within manageable bounds";9$.
Splits permit the narrati*e to depend on the reader-s choice for a limited span, later
returning the reader 3at least temporarily5 to a central core. 3By recording stateinformation, the author may design subseuentlyencountered seuences to split in
conseuence of an early choice0 these splits, too, will usually be reconciled by a 7oin.5
The Ras*o,onpattern "94$ embeds a split7oin within a cycle. The splitF7oin effecti*ely
breaks the cycle, as readers explore different splits during each recurrent exploration,
yet the cycle remains a prominent frame that pro*ides context for each strand. Sarah
Smith-s/in o0 Space"'&$ uses a threeway split at the end of its entrance seuence to
explore the way casual choices may in*ol*e the reader in acts she would ne*er sanction.
The split appears tri*ial and gamelike when first encountered, but becomes morally
meaningful only after the reader has explored alternati*e paths.
O)er)ie(sand to#rs"'4$"%'$ are examples of SplitF@oin where the rhetorical intent of
each path is similar, but one side of the split is more detailed than the other. )riters
typically offer o*er*iews and tours as a ser*ice, but SplitF@oin need not be purely
utilitarian. In &o#lt*rop!s &o)e, for example, the hypertext offers a Split0 the
hypertext responds ironically to the reader-s apparent moti*ation instead of responding
directly to the link-s o*ert message "(2$, in a style later populari+ed by the )eb
maga+ine Suck. 1ypertext may resist0 it need not merely ser*e the reader-s whims.
&issing Link
/t times, a hypertext may suggest the presence of a link that does not, in fact, exist. Dor
example, Stuart Moulthrop, re*iewingForward Anywhere"(9$, describes his hunt for a
link that his reading of the hypertext led him to expect6
/t this point I began to think the two !nightmare! passages must be connected by a
hypertext link, so I launched the reading program and made my way to Malloy-s screen
about the freight trains of yesteryear.... there were many links to other screens, mainly
screens written by Marshall 3this alternation of narrators is pre*alent throughout the
work5. 8one of the links I followed, howe*er, brought me to Marshall-s *ignette about
?B@ and the headless doll....
Dor those less in lo*e with bindings, howe*er, this case of the apparently missing linkmay tell a different story. /sForward Anywherebrilliantly demonstrates, hypertexts are
structured in more dimensions than the line. If a link is not apparent it may be implicit.
"4&$
/llusion, iteration, and ellipsis can all suggest a Missing ?ink. Structural irregularity,
introduced in a context where regular structure has been established, presents an
especially powerful Missing ?ink, for a place to which we cannot na*igate may seem,
by its inaccessibility, uniuely attracti*e. 1arpold and @oyce ha*e argued separately that
the Missing ?ink is a common if not uni*ersal hypertext motif, that na*igational choice
reuires the reader to imagine not only what might appear on the chosen page but also
what might ha*e appeared had she followed a different link "#4$"#2$.
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Na)igational Feint
The Feintestablishes the existence of a na*igational opportunity that is not meant to be
followed immediately0 instead, the Deint informs the reader of possibilities that may be
pursued in the future. By re*ealing na*igational opportunities e*en where they may not
be immediately pursued, a hypertext writer con*eys *aluable information about the
scope of the hypertext or about the organi+ation of the ideas that underlie it.
Deints often appear in the guise of na*igational apparatus. Dor example, a hypertext may
begin with a map or table of contents that pro*ides an o*er*iew of the entire work and
pro*ides direct access to selected places within the hypertext. )hile the na*igational
function is not unimportant, the rhetorical importance of the o*er*iew itself should not
be o*erlooked.
rominent and detailed na*igational Deints are especially useful for establishing the
scope and shape of a hypertext. @ust as important, Deints may help establish what thehypertext omits. 8otice that the feint need not always be strictly accurate0 it is
sometimes useful to deli*er more than what was initially promised. Dor example, the
classic1yper%ard 234 1elp"($ presented a thumbtab o*er*iew that suggested to new
readers that instructions on programming were only a minor part of the hypertext0
readers who might be deterred from using a complex product were reassured that
programming appeared to be a minor feature. In fact, o*er half of the hypertext was
de*oted to a programming reference manual. The na*igational feint on the co*er
concealed this from programminga*erse users, while those who wanted to consult the
programming section were pleasantly surprised by its unheralded scope.
Moulthrop-s ictory !ardenopens 3in some readings5 with garden maps that schemati+ethe narrati*e "(2$. The core narrati*e in =athryn
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Stephanie Strickland-s True -orth"'#$ and @. Cellowlees ouglas- !I 1a*e Said
8othing! "%%$ use utilitarian Storyspace maps as uncon*entional Deints6 the layout of
lexia simultaneously describes a structure and illustrates a central motif.
Digure 96 True 8orth-s Storyspace map
In addition to their utility as introductory and framing de*ices, Deints may form a
recurrent motif throughout the hypertext-s structure. Spatial narrati*es like(yst"('$
offer na*igational feints in the form of doorways, structures, and other pathways that
intersect the reader-s route0 here, Deints signal possible openings for new narrati*es,
roads the readerprotagonist may later choose to tra*el.
In narrati*e, na*igational feints can establish spatial and temporal relationships without
interrupting the narrati*e strand. By establishing a con*entional link type forexample, an icon denoting !link to a simultaneous e*ent occurring elsewhere! a
narrator can clarify and interconnect disparate e*ents without interrupting the topic
under discussion. /rtful use of feints may also manage dramatic tension through
foreshadowing6 if we pro*ide a link from /lice and 1erschel-s inauspicious first
meeting in a Tulsa oncology clinic to the birth of their daughter in Stockholm, the
knowledge gained from the existence of the link sets up undercurrents of expectation
and inuiry off which the rest of the narrati*e may play. By disclosing some parts of the
future we may refocus the reader-s attention and shift tension from one dramatic thread
to another, or may shift energy from wondering how e*ents unfold to permit better
concentration on why they unfold as they do "9#$"#&$"4$.
The Deint is also important in the design of hypertextual catalogs. /s department stores
disco*ered long ago, it is important both to offer the shopper a comprehensi*e array of
desirable goods and to arrange those goods to form a coherent and compelling tra7ectory
as the customer mo*es through the store. /t its best, this pro*ides efficiencies for both
the shopper and the store6 shoppers disco*er items they want to buy but might otherwise
ha*e o*erlooked, and the store gains additional transactions without incurring additional
marketing costs.
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Concl#sion- Co,%ining Patterns
/ll the patterns discussed here may 3and usually do5 contain other patterns as
components. /
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9. Mary=im /rnold, !?ust!,astate $uarterly 5e.iew o0 1ypertext,;22#. ;3%5.
(. Bill /tkinson,1yper%ard. ;2:', /pple obert i+k, /ndre. ;22&,
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%#. @. Cellowlees. ouglas,Print Pathways and Interacti.e Labyrinths+ 1ow 1ypertext
-arrati.es A00ect the Act o0 5eadin3;22%, 8ew Cork Hni*ersity6 8ew Cork.
%9. =. M. Dairchild, S. E. oltrock and ). Durnas, !Sem8et6 threedimensional
graphic representation of large knowledge bases!, in %oniti.e Science and its
Applications 0or 1uman:%omputer Interaction,>. uinon, Editor. ;2::, ?awrenceErlbaum6 1illsdale 8@. p. %&;%##.
%(. Edward Dalco,A #ream &ith #emons3;22', Eastgate Systems, Inc.6 )atertown,
Massachusetts.
%4. Edward Dalco, !Sea Island!,astate $uarterly 5e.iew o0 1ypertext,;22(. %3;5.
%'. >ichard Duruta, et al., !1ypertext aths and the )orld)ide )eb6 Experiences with
)alden-s aths!, inProc3 o0 1ypertext'793;22', Southampton, H=. p. ;4';'4.
%:. Sil*io aggi,From Text To 1ypertext+ #ecenterin the Subobert @. lushko, esign Issues for Multiocument 1ypertexts, in1ypertext'873
;2:2, ittsburgh. p. (;4&.
#9. /drienne Eisen, Six Sex Scenes+ a no.ella in hypertext3;224,
www.altx.comFhyperxFsssFindex.htm6
#(. Shelley>and 1ersel03;224, Eastgate
Systems, Inc.6 )atertown M/.
#:. Michael @oyce, a0ternoon, a story3;22&, Eastgate Systems, Inc.6 )atertown, M/.
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#2. Michael @oyce, !8once Hpon Some Times6 >ereading 1ypertext Diction!,(odern
Fiction Studies,;22'. 9#3#56 p. ('2(2'.
9&. Michael @oyce, *0 Two (inds+ 1ypertext Pedaoy and Poetics3;229, /nn /rbor6
Hni*ersity of Michigan ress.
9;. Michael. @oyce, !Siren Shapes6 Exploratory and epresented itchie,5ashomon. >utgers Dilms in rint, ol. 4.
;2:', >utgers Hni*ersity ress. %&;.
9'. eorge . ?andow, The #ickens &eb3;22%, Eastgate Systems, Inc.6 )atertown,
M/.
9:. eorge . ?andow,1ypertext ?34+ The %on.erence o0 %ontemporary %ritical
Theory and Technoloy,%nd edn. ;22', Baltimore6 @ohns 1opkins ress.
92. eorge . ?andow. !>elationally Encoded ?inks and the >hetoric of 1ypertext!,
1ypertext 893;2:'.
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(4. @ohn Mcaid, "ncle Buddy's Phantom Funhouse3;22%, Eastgate Systems, Inc.6
)atertown, M/.
('. >and and >obyn Miller,(yst. ;22#, ise of the SubSite!,Alertbox,;224.
http6FFwww.useit.comFalertboxF24&2.html.
49. 1.*an yk arunak, 1ypermedia Topologies and Hser 8a*igation, in roc. of
1ypertext '873;2:2, ittsburgh. p. 9#(&.
4(.
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'9. >andall 1. Trigg, !uided Tours and Tabletops6 Tools for