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Thought and LanguageChapter 8
Peking University
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ELIZA
1960s, MIT A Conversationalist: Demonstrating that it r
ecognizes works and know what rules to use to maintain a dialogue.
What distinguishes ELIZA from human?• Relation between thought and language?• In what ways peoples get to learn language?
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Thought
Thinking, means representing things mentally and operating on these representations.
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Outline
Units of Thought: Images, Concepts, and Propositions
Reasoning, Problem Solving, and Decision Making
Language
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1. Units of Thought: Images, Concepts, and Propositions
Mental Images & Mental Models
Concepts and Categories
Propositions
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1.1 Mental Images and Mental Models
Mental ImageA visual representation of a stimulus.
Mental ModelsRepresentations of systems that enable people to
describe, explain, and predict the way things work.
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1.2 Concepts and Categories
Concepts• Mental representation of a class of objects,
ideas, or events that share common properties.
Categorization• The process of grouping objects considered
equivalent and excluding those that are not.
Visualized & more than visual image(car) Well-defined & Fuzzy Concepts(good)
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动物
脊椎动物 无脊椎动物
鸟类 哺乳类 爬行类
鸟 家禽
肺来呼吸有翼飞行卵生温血
不会飞肺、温血卵生
红嘴鸥
海鸟,红嘴,等。
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Concepts and its Organization
Set Theory• Set of Defining(core) Features
Feature Integration Model Prototypes 原型 Bird----robin & penguin
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概念与归类
狗
样例定义特征
德国牧羊犬
猎狗
长毛卷耳狗
玩具狮子狗
四足、有尾动物
吠声、气喘、淌口水
通常受驯养、友好
能捉跳蚤
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水果样例的典型性橘子 1 1.07
苹果 2 1.08
香蕉 3 1.15
桃子 4 1.17
杏子 6.5 1.36
葡萄 9 1.38
西瓜 23 2.39
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概念的形成 Hypothesis-testing Theory
• 整体策略• 部分策略
• 同时性扫描• 连续性扫描• 保守性聚焦• 博弈性聚焦
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1.3 Propositions
The smallest units of meaning that can stand alone as an assertion and be judged true or false.
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2. Reasoning, Problem Solving, and Decision Making Reasoning Problem Solving Decision Making
Factors That Interfere with Rational Thinking Parallel Distributed Processing Using Computers to Simulate Thought A Different Perspective: psychodynamic/behavioral vie
w
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2.1 Reasoning Reasoning
• the process by which people generate and evaluate logical arguments
Inductive Reasoning----observation• reasoning from specific observations to
generate propositions that are probably true.
Deductive Reasoning----idea• Drawing conclusions from assumptions or
premises.
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三段论 (Syllogism)
All A(s) are B C is an A C is a B
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三段论推理 未婚者都不戴结婚戒指。 小李未戴结婚戒指。 所以,小李未婚。
卡片一面是数字,一面是字母。 如果卡片一面是字母 A,另一面就是数字 3。 要验证第二个命题,必须翻什么卡片?
未婚者都不戴结婚戒指。 小李未戴结婚戒指。 所以,小李未婚。
卡片一面是数字,一面是字母。 如果卡片一面是字母 A,另一面就是数字 3。 要验证第二个命题,必须翻什么卡片?
A B 3 2
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2.2 Problem Solving
The process of transforming one situation into another that meets a goal.
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2.2.1 The Problem-solving Process
The problem space No problem
InitialState
OperatorsGoalState
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2.2.2 Three Components
Initial state• Existing of problem
Operators• mental and behavioral processes aimed at
transforming the initial state until it eventually approximates the goal state.
Goal state• Problem is solved
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2.2.3 Steps in Problem Solving Holland et al.(1986): four-step process
• Differences between the two states
• Identify and select possible operators
• Apply the operators (Subgoals)
• Continue using operators until differences are eliminated
Well or Ill-defined problem• Science/ Social life(信息和标准 )
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Problem-Solving Strategies
Algorithms• Systematic problem-solving procedures that ine
vitably produce a solution.
Heuristics• Cognitive shortcuts or Rules of Thumb• Hypothesis testing
• Experience/ Expectation/ Motivation/ Personality
• 如何解决:半夜时分隔壁宿舍太闹 /过得不开心
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2.3 Decision Making Decision making
• The process by which an individual weighs the pros and cons of different alternatives in order to make a choice.
Information-processing models• Utility / Probability
Utility Value Weighted Utility Value Expected Utility
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教授 工商界 公务员属性 重要性
效用 加权效用 效用 加权效用 效用 加权效用
高收入 5 5 25 10 50 7 35
有挑战性 4 10 40 9 36 6 24
有发展机会 3 8 24 8 24 8 24
有住房 2 8 16 2 4 10 20
工作环境 1 10 10 6 6 9 9115 120 112
求职成功率 .10 .90 .50
期望效用 11.50 108 56.0
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Risk Strategies (nonstatistical risk estimate)
Which is your choice?• 85% chance to win $100• Sure gain of $80
Which is your choice?• 85% chance to lose $100• Sure loss of $80
Risk-averse/Risk-seeking strategy Optimistic bias(when estimate own risks)
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2.4 Factors That Interfere with Rational Thinking Representativeness & Availability Heuristic
• Deciding whether an object or incident belongs in a particular class.
• Judging the likelihood of something happening on the basis of its availability in memory.
Confirmation Bias• 2,4,6,
Mental Set Functional Fixedness
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2.5 Parallel Distributed Processing Ruelhart et al., 1986:
PDP model of cognition
Two propositions of PDP model• Parallel
• Letter-recognition/ word-recognition
• Distributed
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2.6 Using Computers to Stimulate Thought Artificial Intelligence
• GPS, General Problem Solver• ELIZA• Expert Systems
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2.7 A Different Perspective: Psychodynamic and Behavioral View of Decision Making
Rational decision maker of information-processing theory.
Decisions involve motivation and emotion, which can be too many and irrational and not be represented in conscious awareness.• Syllogism about Chairman Mao• Wilson & Schooler(1991): 草莓酱• Wilson et al.(1993):艺术画
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Assignment No.4
人类思维过程容易出现失误。为什么?请展开思路,从多个角度加以说明。
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3. Language
The system of symbols, sounds, meanings, and rules for their combination that constitutes the primary mode of communication among humans.
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Main topics on language
Language and Thought Transforming Sounds and Symbols into
Meaning From Babbling to Bantering Nonverbal Communication Is Language Distinct to Humans?
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3.1 Language and Thought
Hununoo (Philippines): 92 names for rice Gender/time phrase in English B. Whorf (1956):Whorfian Hypothesis
Language shapes thought Thought shapes language
• Rosch(1973): Dani people for color(only two)• The United States/These United States
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3.2 Transforming Sounds and Symbols into Meaning Elements of Language
phoneme, morpheme, sentence(phrase), grammar
Slips of the Tongue: Misplacing the Elements of Language(PDP)
Surface and Deep Structure Transformational Grammar
• LAD, Language Acquisition Device
Context and Meaning
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3.3 From Babbling to Bantering
Babbling, One word, Two word,
Telegraphic Speech
Influences on Language Development• genetic predisposition(Eimas, 1985)• environmental influence
• Reinforcement(强化不到位、类似规律、造句 )
Critical Period for Language Development?
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3.4 Nonverbal Communication
Intonation (tone of voice)
Body language *
Gestures
Physical distance
Auditory signals(nonverbal vocalizations)
Facial expressions
Touch or smell
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Is Language Distinct to Humans?
Premack(1972):• A chimpanzee, Sarah, learned a vocabulary of 1
30 plastic symbols.
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4. Some Concluding Thoughts