This book is part of the Psychosocial Stress Series, edited by Charles R. Figley.
RoutledgeTaylor & Francis Group711 Third AvenueNew York, NY 10017
RoutledgeTaylor & Francis Group27 Church RoadHove, East Sussex BN3 2FA
© 2012 by Kathleen NaderRoutledge is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paperVersion Date: 20111107
International Standard Book Number: 978-0-415-87747-3 (Hardback) 978-0-415-87748-0 (Paperback)
For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organiza-tion that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
Nader, Kathleen.School rampage shootings and other youth disturbances : early preventative
interventions / Kathleen Nader. -- 1st ed.p. cm. -- (Psychosocial stress series)
Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978-0-415-87747-3 (hardcover : alk. paper) -- ISBN 978-0-415-87748-0 (pbk. : alk. paper)1. Child psychology. 2. School shootings--Prevention. 3. School
violence--Prevention. I. Title.
BF721.N26 2012372.17’82--dc23 2011029456
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site athttp://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the Routledge Web site athttp://www.routledgementalhealth.com
http://www.routledgementalhealth.com/school-rampage-shootings-and-other-youth-disturbances-9780415877480
v
Contents
Series Editor’s Foreword vii
Acknowledgments ix
Contributors xi
Section i FactorS that contribute to School rampage/targeted ShootingS, other aggreSSion, and other Youth problemS
Chapter 1 SchoolShootingsandOtherYouthProblems:TheNeedforEarlyPreventiveInterventions 3Kathleen Nader
Chapter 2 YouthatRisk:TargetedShootings,OtherSchoolViolence,andSuicide 33Kathleen Nader and Wallis Nader
Chapter 3 TheSchoolEnvironment,SchoolRampageKillings,andOtherFormsofSchoolViolence 71John Eller
Chapter 4 AContinuumofYouthViolence 83Edmund Bruyere and James Garbarino
Section ii earlY preventive interventionS
Chapter 5 TeachingCopingandSocialSkillstoElementarySchoolChildren 103Christine Mello and Kathleen Nader
http://www.routledgementalhealth.com/school-rampage-shootings-and-other-youth-disturbances-9780415877480
vi Contents
Chapter 6 TreatingInsecureandDisorganizedAttachmentsinSchool-AgedChildren 127Ellen Moss, Katherine Pascuzzo, and Valerie Simard
Chapter 7 PromotingEmpathyinSchool-AgedChildren:CurrentStateoftheFieldandImplicationsforResearchandPractice 159Kimberly Schonert-Reichl
Chapter 8 BullyingAmongChildrenandAdolescents:Social–EmotionalLearningApproachestoPrevention 205Dorothy L. Espelage and Sabina Low
Chapter 9 AQuick,FunMethodforTeachingKidsHowtoStopBeingVictims 221Israel C. Kalman
Chapter 10 EarlyInterventions:PreventingAggressionandEnhancingConnectionAmongYouthandAdults 245Kathleen Nader and William S. Pollack
Author Index 265
Subject Index 283
http://www.routledgementalhealth.com/school-rampage-shootings-and-other-youth-disturbances-9780415877480
3
c h a p t e r 1School Shootings and Other Youth Problems
The Need for Early Preventive Interventions
Kathleen Nader
Schoolsafetyisimportanttolearningandtowellbeing(Allen,Cornell,Lorek, & Sheras, 2008; American Psychological Association [APA]Zero Tolerance Task Force, 2008; Robers, Zhang, Truman, Snyder,2010).Aggression in schoolshas longbeenaproblem.Althoughbar-ricadedcaptiveeventsandrampageortargetedshootingsareinfrequentoccurrences(Borum,Cornell,Modzeleski,&Jimerson,2010;Daniels,Royster,Vecchi,&Pshenishy,2010a),theirlong-termimpactonschools,individuals,andfamiliescanbesignificant. Inadditiontoschoolpre-parednessforthepossibilityofsucheventsistheneedforearlypreven-tiveinterventionsthatreducethelikelihoodoftheiroccurrence.Becausesome of the traits, circumstances, and conditions associated with theindividualswhocommitsucheventsarealsoassociatedwithotheryouthdifficulties,engaginginearlyinterventionssuchasthosepresentedinthesecondhalfofthisbookmaypreventanumberofyouthandlateradultproblemsincludingaggression.
SectionIofthisbookexaminesschoolshooters,especiallyyouth-targetedschoolshooters,aswellasthefamily,school,andcommunityenvironmentalconditionsassociatedwithschoolshootings.Anumberofinterventionsmayassistthereductionofaggression,otherdelinquency,andpsychopathologyingeneralaswellasreducethelikelihoodoftar-geted(sometimescalledrampage)shootingsbythosewiththepotentialtocarrythemout.InSectionIIofthisbook,methodstoimprovesocial
http://www.routledgementalhealth.com/school-rampage-shootings-and-other-youth-disturbances-9780415877480
4 Kathleen Nader
skills,copingskills,self-control,empathy,andenvironmentalconditionsforelementaryschoolchildrenaredescribed.Addressinginsecureanddisorganized attachments and creating supportive environments withincreasedconnectionamongindividualsarealsoimportanttothepre-ventionofschoolviolenceandotheryouth-relatedproblems.
SCHOOLSHOOTINGS
Incidence of Violence in Schools
In2006,homicidewasthesecondleadingcauseofdeathforyouthages10 to 24 (5,958 murdered; CDC 2009a) (Suicide was the third lead-ingcause foradolescents in2002;Gouldetal.,2006).The incidenceofviolence,includingviolenceresultingindeaths,isgreateroutsideofschools than within schools (National School Safety Center [NSSC],2006). Arrest rates for murder increased from 1980 to 1993 anddeclined through 1997 (Snyder, & Sickmund, 1999). The number ofyoutharrestedforcommittinghomicidesdecreasedfrom3,092(1993)to1,354(1998)(Brooks,Schiraldi&Ziedenberg,2000).
The1994Gun-FreeSchoolsActrequiresexpulsionofstudentscar-ryingfirearmstoschools.Duringthe1996–1997schoolyear,5,724stu-dentswereexpelled,and in1997–1998,3,927studentswereexpelledforcarryingweapons to school (NSSC,2006).Nevertheless, in2007,youthingrades9–12reportedcarryingagunorotherweapononschoolgrounds—28.5%malesversus7.5%offemales;5.2%carriedagunonschoolgrounds(CDC,2008b).
Onschoolproperty,7%–8%ofstudentssampledwerethreatenedor injured with a weapon in 1993, 1995, 1997, and 1998 (Kaufmanetal.,1999,2000).Althoughresponseratessuggest thatstatisticsareincomplete, a 2007 nationally representative sample of youth grades9–12 reported threat rates similar to the90s (CDC,2008b).That is,nearly8%ofyouth(7.8%)reportedbeingthreatenedorinjuredwithaweapononschoolpropertyoneormoretimesinthepast12months.Inaddition,12.5%ofreportingstudentswereinphysicalfightsinthepast12months(16.8%ofmalestudents;8.5%offemalestudentsfoughtonschoolproperty).Duringthe2008–2009schoolyear,anestimated55.6millionstudentswereenrolledinschools(prekindergartenthroughhighschool;Snyder&Dillow,2010).In2008,therewereapproximately1.2millionvictimsofnonfatalcrimesatschoolamongstudentsages12–18(e.g., 619,000 thefts, 629,800 violent crimes) (Robers et al., 2010). Againin2009,8%ofstudentsreportedbeingthreatenedorinjuredwithaweapon,suchasagun,knife,orclub,onschoolproperty.
http://www.routledgementalhealth.com/school-rampage-shootings-and-other-youth-disturbances-9780415877480
5School Shootings and Other Youth Problems
School-associatedstudenthomicideratesdecreasedbetween1992and2006andhaveremainedrelativelystableinrecentyears(CDC,2008).In2008–2009,therewereapproximately38school-associatedviolentdeathsamong youth ages 5–18 (24 homicides; 14 suicides). Like other youthhomicides,mostschool-associatedhomicidesaregenerallygangordrugrelatedorotherwiseassociatedwithcriminalactivityorinterpersonaldis-putes(Borumetal.,2010).Targetedschoolshootingsarerare.Between1996and2005,17schoolshootingsperpetratedbystudents,withmul-tiplevictims,resultedindeathsof39youthand13adultsaswellas111physicalinjuries(Kaiser,2005;seeTable 1.1).Thenumbersofdeathsandinjuriesreporteddonotincludeothervictims,suchasthemanystudentsandfamilieswhosufferedpsychologicaltraumasandtraumaticgrief,aswell as loss of a sense of safety at school for students, teachers, otherschoolpersonnel,andparents.Inrecentyears,schoolshootingsandstab-bingshaveoccurredallovertheworld(Allenetal.,2008).
Manifestation of Aggression
Multiple pathways may lead to aggression (Cornell, 1990; Cornell,Benedek, & Benedek, 1987; Nader, 2008). Among factors associatedwithaggressionareenvironments(e.g.,home,community),attachmentissues,age,humiliation,moralsocialization,personality,neurobiology,pasttraumas,andinformationprocessing.Forexample,fromaninfor-mationprocessingperspective,Suttonetal.(1999)suggestthatmaladap-tivebehaviors(e.g.,persistentaggression)aretheresultofdeficitsinanyoneormoreofthestepsidentifiedbyCrickandDodge(1994)inachild’sbehavioral responses to social stimuli: (1) encodingof cues, (2) inter-pretationofencodedcues,(3)clarificationofgoals,(4)responseaccessor construction, (5) response decision, and (6) behavioral enactment(Peeters,Cillessen,&Scholte,2010).Nosinglefactorortraitexplainsviolence,andthetraitsidentifiedinshooterscanbefoundinthosewhodonotcommitaggression.Additionally,youth’sskills,traits,andstylescombineinacomplexwaytoinfluencebehavioralandsocialoutcomes(Angold & Heim, 2007; Nader, 2008). For example, genetic vulner-abilitiescombinewithhome,community,and/or traumaticadversitiesto result in specific typesofpsychopathology.Cumulativeor extremestressesmaycontributetoemotionalreactivity(Nader,2008;Sapolsky,1998;vanderKolk&Sapporta,1991).Oneskillmayinfluencemultipleinterrelatedskillsoroutcomes.Forexample,theabilitytotaketheper-spectiveofanotherisimportanttosocialskillsincludingtheabilitytoinfluenceothers,expressandunderstandhumor,anddisplayempathy(Semrud-Clikeman&Glass,2010).Empathyandmoraldevelopmentare
http://www.routledgementalhealth.com/school-rampage-shootings-and-other-youth-disturbances-9780415877480
6 Kathleen Nader
TAb
lE 1
.1
Com
plet
edU
.S.S
choo
lSho
otin
gsW
ith
Mul
tipl
eV
icti
ms
(196
6O
nwar
d)
Scho
ol a
nd U
nive
rsit
y M
ass
Shoo
ting
s (f
rom
196
6)Sh
oote
r E
vent
and
Num
ber
of D
eath
s/In
juri
es
Aug
ust
1,1
966
Uni
vers
ity
ofT
exas
–Aus
tin
Cha
rles
Whi
tman
(C
JW)
Whi
tman
str
angl
edh
ism
othe
ran
dst
abbe
dhi
sw
ife
the
nigh
tbe
fore
the
sho
otin
g.T
hen
ext
mor
ning
he
arri
ved
ats
choo
land
be
gan
toa
scen
dth
eU
Tc
lock
tow
er.H
isfi
rst
vict
imw
asa
re
cept
ioni
st,w
hom
he
knoc
ked
unco
nsci
ous.
She
late
rdi
ed.H
eth
ens
hot
two
mor
epe
ople
bef
ore
her
each
edt
heu
pper
dec
kof
th
eto
wer
.The
re,h
eun
pack
edh
isw
eapo
nsa
ndp
roce
eded
to
shoo
tpe
ople
at
rand
om.W
hitm
ank
illed
at
otal
of
15p
eopl
e,
incl
udin
ghi
sw
ife
and
mot
her,
and
inju
red
31.
Janu
ary
20,1
983
Park
way
Sou
thJ
unio
rH
igh
Scho
olSt
.Lou
is,M
isso
uri
Dav
idF
.Law
ler
(DFL
)L
awle
ren
tere
da
clas
sroo
ma
nds
hot
two
clas
smat
es,k
illin
gon
ean
din
juri
ngt
heo
ther
.He
then
sho
tan
dki
lled
him
self
.
Nov
embe
r1,
199
1U
nive
rsit
yof
Iow
a–Io
wa
Cit
yG
ang
Lu
(GL
)L
u,a
gra
duat
est
uden
t,w
asa
ngry
tha
thi
sdi
sser
tati
ond
idn
ot
rece
ive
ana
war
d.H
ew
ent
tos
choo
lcar
ryin
ga
revo
lver
and
ha
ndgu
nw
ith
the
inte
nto
fsh
ooti
ngs
peci
fical
lyt
arge
ted
peop
le,i
nclu
ding
his
aca
dem
ica
dvis
ora
ndt
hes
tude
ntw
ho
won
the
aw
ard.
He
kille
dfiv
epe
ople
int
otal
,and
sev
erel
yin
jure
dan
othe
r.H
eco
mm
itte
dsu
icid
e.M
ay1
,199
2L
indh
urst
Hig
hSc
hool
Oliv
ehur
st,C
alif
orni
a
Eri
cH
oust
on(
EH
)A
ge2
0H
oust
onw
asb
eing
laid
off
bec
ause
he
had
noh
igh
scho
ol
dipl
oma.
He
kille
da
teac
her
who
flun
ked
him
and
wen
ton
a
shoo
ting
spr
eein
the
hal
lway
s,h
oldi
ng7
0–85
stu
dent
sho
stag
efo
rov
er8
hou
rs.H
eki
lled
thre
est
uden
tsa
ndin
jure
dni
ne.
http://www.routledgementalhealth.com/school-rampage-shootings-and-other-youth-disturbances-9780415877480
7School Shootings and Other Youth Problems
Dec
embe
r14
,199
2Si
mon
’sR
ock
Col
lege
of
Bar
dG
reat
Bar
ring
ton,
Mas
sach
uset
ts
Way
neL
o(W
L)
Way
net
ook
anS
KS
rifle
to
scho
ola
nds
hot
six
peop
le,k
illin
gtw
oan
din
juri
ngf
our.
Nov
embe
r15
,199
5R
ichl
and
Hig
hSc
hool
Lynn
ville
,Ten
ness
ee
Jam
ieR
ouse
(JR
)A
ge1
7R
ouse
wal
ked
into
the
sch
oola
nds
tart
eds
hoot
ing
wit
ha
sem
iaut
omat
icw
eapo
nat
the
firs
tte
ache
rhe
saw
.He
kille
don
ete
ache
ran
don
est
uden
tan
dse
riou
sly
inju
red
anot
her
teac
her.
He
was
wre
stle
dto
the
gro
und
befo
reh
eco
uld
hurt
an
yone
els
e.Fe
brua
ry2
,199
6Fr
onti
erJ
unio
rH
igh
Scho
olM
oses
Lak
e,W
ashi
ngto
n
Bar
ryL
ouka
itis
(B
L)
Lou
kait
is,d
ress
edu
plik
ea
wes
tern
gun
slin
ger,
wal
ked
into
his
al
gebr
acl
assr
oom
wit
htw
opi
stol
san
da
rifle
,and
pro
ceed
ed
tos
hoot
thr
ees
tude
nts
and
his
teac
her.
Thr
eew
ere
kille
dan
don
ein
jure
d.O
ctob
er1
,199
7Pe
arlH
igh
Scho
olPe
arl,
Mis
siss
ippi
Luk
eW
oodh
am(
LW)
Age
16
Woo
dham
kill
edh
ism
othe
ran
dth
enw
ent
tos
choo
l.W
ith
ari
fleh
eki
lled
two
girl
san
dw
ound
eds
even
oth
ers
tude
nts.
He
was
sto
pped
by
the
assi
stan
tpr
inci
palw
hen
tryi
ngt
ogo
to
the
mid
dle
scho
olt
oco
ntin
ueh
isr
ampa
ge.
Dec
embe
r1,
199
7H
eath
Hig
hSc
hool
Wes
tPa
duca
h,K
entu
cky
Mic
hael
Car
neal
(M
C)
Age
14
Car
neal
use
da
pist
olt
oki
llth
ree
stud
ents
and
wou
ndfi
ve,a
fter
th
eyp
arti
cipa
ted
ina
sch
oolp
raye
rci
rcle
int
helo
bby
oft
he
scho
ola
ndw
ere
star
ting
to
got
ocl
ass.
Dec
embe
r15
,199
7St
amps
,Ark
ansa
sJo
seph
“C
olt”
Tod
d(J
T)
Age
14
Todd
use
dsn
iper
fire
to
shoo
ttw
ost
uden
tso
utsi
deo
fth
eir
high
sc
hool
.Fe
brua
ry1
9,1
997
Bet
helR
egio
nalH
igh
Scho
olB
ethe
l,A
lask
a
Eva
nR
amse
y(E
R)
Ram
sey
wen
tto
sch
oolw
ith
ash
otgu
n.H
esh
ott
hree
stu
dent
s,
killi
ngo
nea
ndin
juri
ngt
wo.
He
then
sho
tan
dki
lled
his
prin
cipa
l.C
onti
nued
http://www.routledgementalhealth.com/school-rampage-shootings-and-other-youth-disturbances-9780415877480
8 Kathleen Nader
TAb
lE 1
.1 (C
ontin
ued
) C
ompl
eted
U.S
.Sch
oolS
hoot
ings
Wit
hM
ulti
ple
Vic
tim
s(1
966
Onw
ard)
Scho
ol a
nd U
nive
rsit
y M
ass
Shoo
ting
s (f
rom
196
6)Sh
oote
r E
vent
and
Num
ber
of D
eath
s/In
juri
es
Mar
ch2
4,1
998
Jone
sbor
oJo
nesb
oro,
Ark
ansa
s
And
rew
Gol
den
&
Mit
chel
lJoh
nson
(A
G
&M
J)
Gol
den
and
John
son
dres
sed
inc
amou
flage
,wen
tto
sch
ool,
and
shot
15
peop
lea
tth
eir
scho
ol’s
pla
ygro
und.
Fiv
ew
ere
kille
d.
May
21,
199
8T
hurs
ton
Hig
hSc
hool
Spri
ngfie
ld,O
rego
n
Kip
Kin
kel(
KK
)A
ge1
5K
inke
lkill
edt
wo
stud
ents
int
heh
alla
ndw
ound
ed2
2in
the
ca
fete
ria
firin
g50
rou
nds
from
as
emia
utom
atic
pis
tola
ndt
wo
othe
rgu
ns.H
eha
dki
lled
his
pare
nts
befo
reg
oing
to
scho
ol.
Apr
il,1
998
Jam
esW
.Par
ker
Scho
olE
dinb
oro,
PA
And
rew
Wur
st(
AW
)A
ge1
4W
urst
kill
eda
tea
cher
and
wou
nded
tw
ost
uden
tsa
tan
eig
hth-
grad
eda
nce.
Ano
ther
tea
cher
was
gra
zed
wit
ha
bulle
tbu
tdi
dno
tre
quir
em
edic
alt
reat
men
t.A
pril
20,1
999
Col
umbi
neH
igh
Scho
olL
ittl
eton
,Col
orad
o
Eri
cH
arri
san
dD
ylan
K
lebo
ld(
ED
H&
DK
)H
arri
san
dK
lebo
ldk
illed
one
tea
cher
and
12
stud
ents
.The
yw
ound
ed2
4ot
hers
bef
ore
com
mit
ting
sui
cide
.The
yha
dtw
o9-
mm
fire
arm
san
dtw
o12
-gau
ges
hotg
uns.
The
ir9
9ho
mem
ade
bom
bsd
idn
otd
eton
ate.
May
20,
199
9H
erit
age
Hig
hSc
hool
Con
yers
,Geo
rgia
Tho
mas
Sol
omon
Jr.
(TJS
)So
lom
onw
ent
tos
choo
lwit
ha
.22
rifle
and
beg
ans
hoot
ing
at
rand
om.H
ein
jure
d6
stud
ents
.
Dec
embe
r6,
199
9Fo
rtG
ibso
nM
iddl
eSc
hool
Fort
Gib
son,
Okl
ahom
a
Seth
Tri
ckey
Age
13
Tri
ckey
sho
ta
sem
iaut
omat
icw
eapo
nin
toa
cro
wd
ofa
bout
70
stud
ents
inf
ront
of
the
scho
ol.H
ew
ound
edf
our
stud
ents
.
Mar
ch5
,200
1Sa
ntan
aH
igh
Scho
olSa
ntee
,Cal
ifor
nia
Cha
rles
And
rew
W
illia
ms
(CA
W)
Age
13
Will
iam
sw
ent
tos
choo
lwit
ha
.22
and
bega
nsh
ooti
ngin
the
m
en’s
bat
hroo
mw
here
he
kille
d2
stud
ents
.He
proc
eede
dto
in
jure
13
othe
rs.
http://www.routledgementalhealth.com/school-rampage-shootings-and-other-youth-disturbances-9780415877480
9School Shootings and Other Youth Problems
Mar
ch2
2,2
001
Gra
nite
Hill
sH
igh
Scho
olG
rani
teH
ills,
Cal
ifor
nia
Jaso
nH
offm
an(
JH)
Age
18
Hof
fman
kne
ltn
ext
toa
tre
eon
the
sch
oolg
roun
dsa
ndfi
red
at
fello
ws
tude
nts
wit
ha
shot
gun.
He
wou
nded
one
tea
cher
and
th
ree
stud
ents
.He
was
wou
nded
by
apo
licem
an.
Sept
embe
r24
,200
3R
ocor
iHig
hSc
hool
Col
dSp
ring
,Min
neso
ta
John
Jas
onM
cLau
ghlin
(J
JM)
Age
15
McL
augh
link
illed
tw
ost
uden
tsw
ith
api
stol
.
Sept
embe
r4,
200
4C
olum
bia
Hig
hSc
hool
Whi
teE
ast
Gre
enbu
sh,N
Y
Jon
Will
iam
Rom
ano
Age
16
Ref
eren
ced
Col
umbi
neb
uto
nly
wou
nded
one
.
Mar
ch2
1,2
005
Red
Lak
eH
igh
Scho
ol,
Red
Lak
e,M
N
Jeff
rey
Wei
se(
JW)
Age
16
Wei
sek
illed
his
gra
ndfa
ther
and
gra
ndfa
ther
’sc
ompa
nion
,one
te
ache
r,a
secu
rity
gua
rd,a
ndfi
ves
tude
nts.
He
then
kill
ed
him
self
.N
ovem
ber
8,2
005
Cam
pbel
lCou
nty
Hig
hSc
hool
Jack
sbor
o,T
enne
ssee
Ken
neth
Bar
tley
Jr.
(KB
)A
ge1
5B
artl
eyk
illed
an
assi
stan
tpr
inci
pala
nds
erio
usly
wou
nded
tw
oot
her
adm
inis
trat
ors.
May
hav
ebe
ena
ccid
enta
lwea
pon
disc
harg
e.M
arch
14,
200
6Pi
neM
iddl
eSc
hool
Whi
teR
eno,
Nev
ada
Jam
esS
cott
New
man
Age
14
Stud
ied
Col
umbi
ne.W
ound
edt
wo.
Aug
ust
30,2
006
Ora
nge
Hig
hSc
hool
Hill
sbor
ough
,Nor
thC
arol
ina
Alv
aro
Raf
aelC
asti
lloA
ge1
8St
udie
dan
dre
fere
nced
Col
umbi
ne.K
illed
one
.
Sept
embe
r29
,200
6W
esto
nH
igh
Scho
olC
azen
ovia
,Wis
cons
in
Eri
cH
ains
tock
(E
Ha)
Age
15
Hai
nsto
ck,a
rmed
wit
htw
ogu
ns,k
illed
the
sch
oolp
rinc
ipal
ina
st
rugg
leo
ver
one
oft
heg
uns.
Con
tinu
ed
http://www.routledgementalhealth.com/school-rampage-shootings-and-other-youth-disturbances-9780415877480
10 Kathleen Nader
TAb
lE 1
.1 (C
ontin
ued
) C
ompl
eted
U.S
.Sch
oolS
hoot
ings
Wit
hM
ulti
ple
Vic
tim
s(1
966
Onw
ard)
Scho
ol a
nd U
nive
rsit
y M
ass
Shoo
ting
s (f
rom
196
6)Sh
oote
r E
vent
and
Num
ber
of D
eath
s/In
juri
es
Apr
il16
,200
7V
irgi
nia
Tech
Bla
cksb
urg,
Vir
gini
a
Seun
g-H
uiC
ho(
S-H
C)
Age
23
Cho
Seu
ng-H
uik
illed
tw
oin
ad
orm
;2h
ours
late
rhe
kill
ed3
0an
dw
ound
ed1
5in
ac
lass
room
bui
ldin
g.H
eth
enk
illed
hi
mse
lf.
Oct
ober
10,
200
7Su
cces
sA
cade
my
Whi
teC
leve
land
,Ohi
o
Asa
Coo
nA
ge1
4K
illed
one
,wou
nded
five
.
Febr
uary
14.
200
8N
orth
ern
Illin
ois
Uni
vers
ity
DeK
alb,
Illi
nois
Stev
enK
azm
ierc
zak
Age
27
Af
orm
erN
IUs
tude
nts
tepp
edf
rom
beh
ind
asc
reen
on
ale
ctur
eha
llst
age;
wit
hfo
urg
uns,
he
fired
doz
ens
ofs
hots
into
a
geol
ogy
clas
s,t
hen
shot
him
self
;kill
edfi
ve;i
njur
edm
ore
than
a
doze
n.
Not
e: T
his
list
may
not
be
com
preh
ensi
ve.I
tis
lim
ited
to
case
soc
curr
ing
int
heU
.S.L
isti
ngs
are
take
nfr
omn
ewsp
aper
sto
ries
(e.
g.,
New
Yor
k T
imes
, Chi
cago
Sun
Tim
es)
and
from
tex
tsa
nda
rtic
les
byD
anie
lse
tal
.,20
04;D
avis
,200
4;L
arki
n,2
009;
Pol
lack
,20
04;a
ndS
tear
ns,2
008.
http://www.routledgementalhealth.com/school-rampage-shootings-and-other-youth-disturbances-9780415877480
11School Shootings and Other Youth Problems
amongfactorsthatareimportanttoself-regulation.Ingeneral,bullying(e.g.,relationalorphysicalaggression) isassociatedwithmoraldisen-gagementand lackofemotionalunderstanding.However, thesociallyintelligent youthhas theoption touse this skill peacefullyor aggres-sively;somesocialintelligenceisneededinordertoengageinconcealedrelationalaggression(Peetersetal.,2010).Geneticpredispositionsmaycombinewithparentalmodelingsuchthatyoutharepronetoandlearnto resolve interpersonal conflict with antagonism/aggression. In suchcases, lackofsocialskillscombinedwithcoercivebehaviorsmayleadtopeerrejection,andnoncompliancemayleadtofailureinschool.Inturn,thesefailuresmayexacerbateproblems.Additionally,timeofonsetisafactor.Earlyonsetpatternsofaggressionemergebeforeage6andmaytranslateintoadultcriminality(Bennett,Elliot,&Peters,2005).Asearlyaskindergarten,elementaryschoolteachersmayassisttheincreaseof social skillsandself-control,aswellas thereductionof socialandbehavioralproblems.
School Shootings With Multiple Deaths and/or Injuries
Inadditiontoschoolshootingsaimedatoneortwoindividualsbecauseofdisputes,powerseeking,organgactivities,thereareshootingsaimedatmultiplestudents.Suchshootings,sometimesreferredtoasrampageor targeted school shootings/attacks or barricaded captive situations(dependingonthecircumstances),maybeadultoryouthperpetrated.Althoughfullinformationaboutperpetratorsoftheseeventsisusuallynotavailable(e.g.,withheldforlegalreasons;lackofthoroughfindingspriortoevents)andnewspaperaccountsarenotalwaysaccurate(Borumetal.,2010;Lieberman,2006),someinformationisprovidedinthepsy-chologicalinvestigationsthatfollowtheseevents(seeChapter2).Aswillbediscussed in thepages to followand in the chapters of this book,whatisknownunderscorestheneedfor,amongotherthings,thetreat-mentoftraumas,complicatedgrief,andothermentaldisorders,aswellasthereductionofbullying,teachingyouthskillstodealwithbullyingandotheradversities,andtheprovisionofearlyinterventionsforfaultycaretaker–youthattachments.
CHILD-RELATEDVARIABLESTHATINFLUENCEDEVELOPMENT
Lifeprovidesnumerousstressorsforyouth.Earlyattachmentrelation-ships(Chapters6and10)helptoshapeayouth’songoingabilitytocope
http://www.routledgementalhealth.com/school-rampage-shootings-and-other-youth-disturbances-9780415877480
12 Kathleen Nader
withstressandadversity.Thenatureofayouth’spersonality,neurobi-ology, social skills (e.g., perspective taking/empathy, social ease), andcopingskillsinfluencehowtheyrespondtostressors,includingthelike-lihoodofaggressionorsuicidality.
Neurobiology
AsdiscussedinChapter2,genetic(e.g.,lowMAOAactivity)andneu-rochemicalcharacteristicsareassociatedwithaggressionaswellaswithinternalizing(e.g.,serotoninsystemanddepression)andotherexternal-izingdisorders (Nader,2008).Changes inhormone levels, changes inreactivitytoneurochemicals(suchascortisolreactivity),specificbraininjury,andactivationofthefight–flightneurochemistryhavebeenlinkedto aggression (McBurnett, King, & Scarpa, 2003; Sapolsky, 1998).Serotonin deficiencies, for example, have been associated with lowmood,lackofwillpower,poorappetitecontrol,andthedysregulationofaggression(Grigorenko,2002;Schmidt&Fox,2002).Althoughcaremustbetakeninprescribingdrugsforyouth,thecorrectionofdeficitsbyuseofserotoninreuptakeinhibitorsdecreasesaggression,amelioratesanxiety,andinducessecureattachmentphenomena.Additionally,eventhoughfromaneurobiologicalperspectivemostaggressionisnotassoci-atedwithbraindeficits,whenthebrainisimplicatedintheexpressionofaggression,anumberofbraindeficits,especiallyrighthemisphericdefi-cits,arefoundtobeassociatedwithaggression(Kaiser,2005).Violenceandantisocialbehaviorshavebeen linked toabnormalprefrontalcir-cuitry,especiallyontherightside.
Previous traumatizationhasbeenamongassociationswithbehav-ioralproblemsincludingaggressionandsuicidality.Eitherover-activation(e.g.,fearorfight-inducingtraumas)orunder-activation(e.g.,neglect)ofimportantneuralsystemsduringcriticalperiodsmayprofoundlyaffectchild development (Perry, Pollard, Blakely, Baker & Vigilante, 1995).Forexample,extremestressmaydisruptthefunctioningofthecortex,which iscritically involved in inhibiting thestress responseaswellasin attention, organization, self-regulation, and planning (Rothbart &Rueda,2005;Stevensetal.,2007;Stein&Kendall,2004)(seeTraumaandAdversity,tocome).
Social and Coping Skills
Socialandcoping skillsdeficitshavebeenassociatedwithadjustmentproblemsandbehavioraldisorders(Chapter5).Nonproductivecoping
http://www.routledgementalhealth.com/school-rampage-shootings-and-other-youth-disturbances-9780415877480
13School Shootings and Other Youth Problems
strategies have moderated the relationship between personality char-acteristics and delinquency (Hasking, 2007; Chapter 5). Aspects ofself-regulationareassociatedwithsocialandcopingcompetence—forexample, the ability to delay gratification and to inhibit reactions isimportanttocopingandsocialinteraction(Posner&Rothbart,2007).Research indicates that,compared toyouthwithpoorself-regulation,youthwithgoodself-regulationscorehigheronmeasuresofsocialcom-petence,aswellasacademicachievement,grades,andcoping(Buckner,Mezzacappa,&Beardslee,2009).Theyscoreloweronbehavioralprob-lems,anxiety,anddepression.Youthhigh inself-regulationappear torespondinmoreadaptivemannerstorealpastandhypotheticalstress-ors. Buckner et al. (2009) suggest that self-regulation skills may helpchildrencopewithadversity inmanners thathelp toalleviatedistressandtoresolveproblems.
Evidencesuggeststhatinterventionscanintegratepreventionofsui-cideandviolencebyfocusingontheirjointriskandprotectivefactors.Among these factors are coping skills and family functioning (Lubell&Vetter,2006).Althoughithasbeensuggestedthat,undercontinuedharassment,anyonemighteventuallyeruptintoviolence,becomeself-destructive,orsufferothersevereadverseemotionaleffects(seeDanielset al., 2010b), well-developed coping skills reduce the likelihood ofaggression(Chapter5).
Empathy
Empathy is a multidimensional concept that encompasses cognitiveaswellasemotionaldimensions, includingtheabilitytotaketheper-spectiveofothers, to correctly identify their subjective reality, and toexperienceappropriateaffectiveresponses totheperceptionofothers’emotional states (e.g., empathic concern, sharing the emotions of theother;Grynberg,Luminet,Corneille,Grèzes,&Berthoz,2010).MartinHenleysuggeststhatlackofsocialskilldevelopmentandinadequaciesofemotionalintelligencehandicapdisruptiveyouth,suchasthosewhobully,talkback,orrefusetofinishtasks(interviewinHopkins,2004).Theseyouthmayhaveshortcomingsintheirabilitiestounderstandtheimpactoftheirbehaviorsonothersaswellastocontrolimpulses,antici-pateconsequences,andmanagestress.
Alexithymiareferstoadeficitintheabilitytoidentifyanddescribeone’sownemotions,aswellasatendencytodealwithsuperficialthemesandtoavoidemotional/affectivethinking(suchavoidanceisreferredtoasexternally oriented thinking)(Frewenetal.,2008;Grynbergetal.,2010).Alexithymiahasbeenfoundinsometraumatizedindividualsand
http://www.routledgementalhealth.com/school-rampage-shootings-and-other-youth-disturbances-9780415877480
14 Kathleen Nader
in associationwith somatic andothermental illnesses (Frewen et al.,2008).Evidencesuggestsacorrelationbetweenempathy(e.g.,perspec-tivetaking,empathicconcern)andtheabilitytoidentifyanddescribepersonal emotions aswell as anegative associationbetween empathyand externally oriented thinking (i.e.,when empathy is higher, exter-nally oriented thinking is lower) (Grynberg et al., 2010; Guttman &Laporte,2002).Youthwhoperpetratesocialcruelty(e.g.,relationalorovertlyaggressivebullying)tendtolackempathy,compassion,andper-spectivetaking(Cunningham,2007).
Processingof facialexpressionsandother indicatorsofemotion isimportanttohumaninteraction(Douglas,&Porter,2010).Traumaticordepressivereactionsmayinterferewithcomponentsofempathysuchasinformationprocessing(e.g.,perspectivetakingandaccuraterecognitionofothers’emotions).Forexample,individualswhoexperienceviolenceorexclusionmayattributemaliciousintenttoothersmoreoftenthantheirpeers,eveninambiguoussituations(Crick&Dodge,1996).Depressivesymptoms have been associated with negative interpersonal expecta-tions and perceptions, biased information processing in interpersonalinteractions, and maladaptive relationship-oriented beliefs (Hammen&Rudolph,2003).Forexample,depressedindividualsmoreoftenthanothersseesadnessandlessoftenseehappinessinneutralfaces(Douglas&Porter,2010).Cognitivebiasesmaycontributetoaggression(Nader,2008).Aggressiveyouthmayhavebiasesthatendorsethevalueofaggres-sion. Aggressive individuals tend more often to demonstrate a hostileattributionbias(Georgiou&Stavrinides,2008).Thatis,theymoreoftenseehostileintentinambiguousorneutralsituationsthanothers.
ENVIRONMENTALFACTORS
Family, school, community, and national environments influence out-comessuchaseffectivecopingoraggression,exclusionorsupport,andriskorresilienceinyouth.Forexample,socioeconomicstatus(SES)andcommunityviolencehavebeen implicated (Klein&Cornell,2010).Anumberofschoolenvironmentalfactorshavebeenlinkedtoschoolvio-lence(seeChapter3;“TheCaringSchoolCommunityProject,”Chapter7;and“PeacefulSchoolsProject,”Chapter8).School size, climateorsocial atmosphere, connection, the cycle of victimization and aggres-sion,bullyingandanatmospherethatcondonesit,amongotherfactors,have been linked to school outcomes (Gregory, Cornell, Fan, Sheras,Shih,&Huang,2010).Creatingasafeenvironmentandenhancingrap-portbetweenadultsandstudents isapartofprevention,aswellasapart of avertingpotential aggression.AsChapters 2 and8 elaborate,
http://www.routledgementalhealth.com/school-rampage-shootings-and-other-youth-disturbances-9780415877480
15School Shootings and Other Youth Problems
programs that reduce theacceptabilityofbullyingbehaviors, increaseperceived adult responsiveness, and promote conflict resolution havebeen linked to reductions inbullyingandotheraggression.Providingyouthwithmethodsofcopingwithaggressorshasalsoproveneffective.
The School Environment—School Size
Among the multiple school-related factors that influence behavioralandmentalhealthoutcomes(Werblow,Robinson,&Duesbery,2010),schoolsizeisassociatedwithmixedfindingsinfluencedbydifferencesinstudymethods(e.g.,variableinclusion,sourceofdata)andinschoolandcommunitycharacteristics.Forexample,demographicssuchasSES(e.g.,lowSES),ethnicmake-upofschools(e.g.,ethnicdiversity/homo-geneity),andlocalcrimerates(e.g.,highcrime)areassociatedwithout-comes(e.g.,antisocialaggressiveness,externalizingbehaviors;seeKlein&Cornell,2010forasummary).Inaddition,thefrequencyofproblemsmustbedistinguishedfromthepercentagerateoftheiroccurrence.Thatis, largerschoolsmayhavemorereportedbehaviorproblemsbutmayhaveasmallerpercentageofproblemsfortheirpopulationthansmallerschools. For example, Klein and Cornell (2010) found a higher fre-quencybutalowerrateofrecordedbullyingoffensesinlargerschools.Morestudyisneededtodiscoverthemeaningoffindings.Forexample,doincreasedbullyingdisciplineviolationsreflectstricterenforcementinraciallydiverseschoolsortheimpactofdiversity?Isschoolsize,loca-tion,ordemographicsthekeyfactorinoutcomes?Inthecaseofphysicalattacks,KleinandCornell(2010)foundthatthedangerdidnotappeartobelinkedtourbanlocationorschoolsize,butinsteadtothepropor-tionoflow-income,minoritystudents.
Although small and larger school-size are discussed here, someresearchsuggestsanoptimalschoolsizerelatedtosomeoutcomes.Sixstudies found an “inverted U” relationship between school size andachievement. Achievement increased with school size up to an opti-mumsize thenbegan todeclineas school size exceeded theoptimum(Leithwood&Jantzi,2009).
Small SchoolsProponents of small schools suggest the following upper limits forschools:(a)forelementaryschools,therecommendedrangeis300to400students;and(b)forsecondaryschools,therangeis400to800(Cotton,1996;Leithwood&Jantzi,2009;Werblow&Duesbery,2009).Manyinvestigatorsconcludethatnoschoolshouldhavemorethan400or500students.Relatedtoachievementandstudentattendanceandretention
http://www.routledgementalhealth.com/school-rampage-shootings-and-other-youth-disturbances-9780415877480
16 Kathleen Nader
rates,LeithwoodandJantzi(2009)concludedthatespeciallystrugglingandeconomicallydisadvantagedstudentsbenefitfromsmallerschools.Abodyof researchhasdemonstrated that small schools have greaterparent participation, better student engagement in school (i.e., moreparticipation,identification,andconnectionwithschool),morepositiveschoolclimates,warmerrelationshipsbetweenadultsandstudents,moreopportunity for school involvement, better school achievement, andfewerbehavioralproblems(Abbott,Joireman,&Stroh,2002;Cotton,1996;Klein&Cornell,2010;Leithwood&Jantzi,2009;Werblow&Duesbery,2009).
Larger SchoolsArguments in favor of large schools point out their economic andresourcebenefits.Inadditiontoeconomicaladvantages(e.g.,bulkpur-chasing; Klein & Cornell, 2010), large schools sometimes provide agreatervarietyofcourses(Leithwood&Jantzi,2009;Monk&Haller,1993).Althoughfindingsaremixedforachievement,someresearchsug-gestshigherscoresformiddleandhighschoolstudentsinlargerschools(Klein&Cornell,2010).
Some evidence suggests an absence of correlation between largeschool size and some externalizing problems (e.g., bullying; Klein &Cornell,2010).InalargeVirginiastatewidestudyofhighschoolsizeandvictimization,accordingtoschoolrecords,therelationshipbetweenschool size and bullying, threat, and attack violations was negative(Klein&Cornell,2010).Thatis,largerschoolshadalowerrateofvio-lationsthansmallerschools.Becauseschoolprincipalsandtheirassis-tants canonlydealwithafixednumberofdiscipline cases eachday,itispossiblethatlessseriouscaseswerenotrecorded.Studentreportsoftheirownvictimizationshowednocorrelationswithschoolsize.Incontrast,anationallyrepresentativelongitudinal studyof2,232elemen-taryschoolchildrendemonstratedthatschoolsizewasassociated withanincreasedriskofbeingvictimizedbybullying (Bowesetal.,2009).
The School Environment—Peer Victimization
Vying for social status is among normal human behaviors. Vying forstatus is among forms of bullying and relational aggression as well.Victims, bullies, and bully-victims are at risk for a number of nega-tive outcomes, such as absenteeism, alcohol abuse, antisocial behav-iors,cigarettesmoking,anduseofother formsofviolence,aswellaspoorpsychosocialadjustment,pooracademicachievement, loneliness,rejection,depression,anxiety, andpoor self-esteem (Beran&Lupart,
http://www.routledgementalhealth.com/school-rampage-shootings-and-other-youth-disturbances-9780415877480
17School Shootings and Other Youth Problems
2009; Hawker & Boulton, 2000; Nansel, Overpeck, Haynie et al.,2003;Nansel,Overpeck,Pillaetal.,2001;Phillips,2007).Findingsforprevalenceofbullyingareinfluencedbydefinitionalcriteria(Cornell&Bandyopadhyay,2010). Ina studyofprevalence ratesofbullyingvic-timizationreportedforthe2monthspriortoquestioning,inanation-allyrepresentativesampleofgrades6–10,Wang,Ionnatti,andNansel(2009)statedthat12.8%ofstudentsreportedbeingphysicallybullied,36.5%wereverballybullied,41.0%relationallybullied,and9.8%cyberbullied.Bullyingandtheimpactofhumiliationandhelplessnessaredis-cussedinmoredetailinChapter2.
Vying for Social StatusAccording toKaiser (2005), all adolescentprimates, especiallymales,strive for social status.Foranimalsandhumans,aggressionhasbeenlinked to social status. Rough and tumble (R&T) play, for example,demonstratesthislink(Nader,2008).R&Tbehaviorcombines(1)gentlecontact such as open-handed hitting, pushing, or teasing; (2) positiveaffectsuchassmilingorlaughing;and(3)remainingtogetheraftertheroughact(Pellegrini,2003).Aggressivebehavior,incontrast,combines(1)hardcontactsuchasclosed-handedhittingorkicking;(2)negativeaffectsuchasfrowningorcrying;and(3)separationaftertheaggres-siveact.Although,R&Tandaggressionareseparatesystems,andtheyappeartobelinkedtodifferentneuralandendocrinecontrols,Pellegrini(2003) demonstrated that R&T practices are used to establish domi-nance inadolescence.R&Tpermits youth to evaluate the strengthofothersor toestablish theirowndominance. Inmostmammalianspe-ciesandcultures,malesengageinmoreR&Tthanfemales(Pellegrini&Smith,1998).Females,incontrast,primarilyuseverbalratherthanphysicalmeanstogainorkeepresources.Foradolescents,thestrongerboymayescalatetheintensityofbehaviorssuchasfightingiftheweakerboydoesnotyieldorshowdistress.Vyingforstatushasbeenapartofbullyingandrelationalaggression.
Peer Reinforcement and the Cycle of ViolenceAggressorsandvictimshelptoshapeeachother’sbehaviors,andpeersreinforcethepattern(Nader,2008;Chapter8).Inalongitudinalstudy,Schwartzetal. (1993) found thataggressiveboys targetedyouthwhowerenotwell regarded.Thepeergroupenvironment fosteredchronicvictimization by offering positive regard to aggressors for agonisticbehaviors towards victims but not for aggression toward nonvictims.Additionally, in theSchwartzetal. study,boys reinforced theaggres-sive behaviors of their attackers, for example, by permitting domina-tionorgivingupobjects.Astimeprogressed,peersrarelyrewardedand
http://www.routledgementalhealth.com/school-rampage-shootings-and-other-youth-disturbances-9780415877480
18 Kathleen Nader
frequentlyrefusedpersuasionattemptsbyvictimboys.Themoreboyswerevictimized,thelesspeerslikedthem.Thus,earlyvictimizationmayresultinadditionalorongoingvictimizationbyexclusionorotherformsof relational aggression aswell as overt aggression. In turn, repeatedvictimizationmay lead tohumiliationand rage thatultimately eruptsintoviolence.Chronicallyvictimizedboyshavebeenamongthosewhohavecommittedschoolshootings(includingtargetedschoolshootings)or suicides (Seals & Young, 2003). Exposure to school shootings (orsuicides)cantraumatizeyouth.Ahistoryoftraumaisamongthefactorsassociatedwithsubsequentaggressivenessinyouth(Greenwald,2002;Nader,2008).
Averted School ShootingsA number of targeted shootings (or shooting rampages) have beenaverted.Anexaminationofschoolswhereplannedshootingshavebeenavertedhasdemonstratedsomeofthemeasuresthatcanbetakentopre-vent in-schoolviolence(O’Toole&Critical IncidentResponseGroup,2000).MethodsusedareelaboratedinTable 1.2.Zero tolerancepoli-cies that impose severe sanctions (e.g., suspension or expulsion) evenforminoroffenses inhopesofpreventingmore seriousoneshavenotproveneffectiveinpreventingschoolviolence(Allenetal.,2008;APAZeroToleranceTaskForce,2008;Borumetal.,2010).Threatassess-mentmethodshavereceivedgreaterendorsement.Youthoftencommu-nicate their plans for targeted acts of violence. High-level threats arespecificanddetailed;theindividualhastakenstepstocarryouttheplan(Danielsetal.,2010b).Creatingasafeenvironmentinwhichyouthfeelfreetotellwhattheyhavebeentoldoroverheardisimportant.Inaddi-tiontoestablishingagoodrapportwithallstudents,makinganefforttoestablisharelationshipwithat-riskyouthorthosewhohaveshownwarningsignsisalsoimportant.Respondingimmediatelytoanyreportsof potential rampages is essential. As documented by student reportsandschoolrecords,Cornell,Sheras,Gregory,andFan(2009)foundthatschoolsusingtheVirginiathreatassessmentmethodreportedlessbully-ing,greaterwillingnesstoseekhelprelatedtothreatsofviolenceorbul-lying,morepositiveperceptionsofschoolclimate,andfewerlong-termsuspensionsthanschoolsusingotherthreatassessmentapproaches.
Home and Community Environments
A number of home and community issues influence aggressive andother outcomes in youth. When combined with adversity, parentalmental health, parenting and attachment styles (Chung & Steinberg,
http://www.routledgementalhealth.com/school-rampage-shootings-and-other-youth-disturbances-9780415877480
19School Shootings and Other Youth Problems
TAblE 1.2 TargetedSchoolViolencePrevention
Method Aspects of the Method
Safeclimate MaintainingasafeandpositiveschoolclimateMutualrespectbetweenadultsandstudentsRapportbuilding—developingpositiveconnectionswithstudents,treatingstudentswithdignityandrespect,compassionateinteractions,accentuatingstudents’strengths,openandtrustingrelationshipswithfamilies
Thevisiblepresenceofschoolpersonnelthroughouttheschool
Encouragementforstudentstocommunicaterumors/concernsorweapons
Useofatrained,uniformedschoolresourceofficerStafftraining Watchfulness—ever-presentawarenessofconditionsin
andaroundtheschool• reportinganyaltercation,behavioralchanges,
indicatorsofmentalillness,orsuspectbodylanguage• takingallthreatsseriously
Crisisplanning• methodsofresponse• planningandpracticeforworstcasescenarios• planningfortheaftermathofevents
AnticipatingpoliceandmediaresponseLiaison Clearcommunicationandliaisonwithlawenforcement
andmentalhealthprofessionalsbefore,during,andafteranevent
Threatassessment(e.g.,seeVirginiaThreatAssessmentModel,DallasThreatofViolenceRiskAssessment)
Useofathreatassessmentteam(e.g.,principalorassistantprincipal,schoolresourceofficerorlawenforcementofficer,andapsychologist,counselor,orsocialworker)
Usingamultidisciplinaryapproach—employmentofallschoolpersonnel,lawenforcement,andmentalhealthprofessionals
Usingaproblem-solvingapproachMaintainingorder—lookingforevidenceInvestigation,triggeredbyastudent’sthreateningbehaviororbehaviors(notcharacteristics)thatareofconcern
Assessmentofyouth’sintentorideasofattack—communicationofintent,interestinotherattacksorattackers,interestinandaccesstoweapons,beliefthatviolenceisanacceptablewayofdealingwiththings
Continued
http://www.routledgementalhealth.com/school-rampage-shootings-and-other-youth-disturbances-9780415877480
20 Kathleen Nader
2006;Fletcher, Steinberg,&Williams-Wheeler,2004), familyhistoryandstructure(Langenkamp&Frisco,2008;Scaramella,Sohr-Preston,Callahan, & Mirabile, 2008), and peer and community influences(Chung&Steinberg,2006;Lairdetal.,2001)affectmentalhealthout-comes.Forexample,acrossracialandeconomicdemographicgroups,the combination of strong supervision and positive parental involve-mentisprotectiveagainstoutcomessuchasaggressionanddelinquency(Chung&Steinberg,2006;Nader,inpress).Discussionsofattachment,adversity,andsupportfollow.
TAblE 1.2 (Continued ) TargetedSchoolViolencePrevention
Method Aspects of the Method
Assessmentofyouth’sabilitytocarryoutanattackAssessmentofyouth’smentalstate—hopelessness,desperation,and/ordespair
Cognizanceofwhetherothersareworriedaboutthestudent’spotentialforviolence
Examinationofcircumstancesthatmightinfluencethelikelihoodofattack
Assessmentofwhetherthecasecanberesolvedasatransientthreat
Immediatesecuritymeasures,ifdeemedappropriate—notificationoflawenforcement,warningpotentialvictims,and/orotherintervention
Bullyingprevention Teacher/staffawarenessofbullyingasaproblemTeacher/staffwillingnesstointerveneEquippingstudentstodealwithbullying
Crisisintervention Communicatingwithasuspectedshooterinacalm,nonconfrontationalmannertodeescalateemotionsoftheassailant;useofgoodlisteningskills
Trainednegotiatorsnegotiatingthereleaseofanyhostages
RestoringsafetyDeescalatingthesituation—assuringstudentsthattheyaresafe,enlistingmentalhealthservices
Evaluatingpsychologicaltraumariskandrespondingtopsychologicalneeds
Note: FromAllen,K.,Cornell,D.,Lorek,E.,andSheras,P.,2008;Borum,R.,Cornell,D.,Modzeleski,W.,andJimerson,S.,2010;Cornell,D.,2006;Cornell, D., & Sheras, P., 2006; Daniels, J., Royster,T.,Vecchi, G., &Pshenishy, E., 2010; Daniels, J.,Volungis,A., Pshenishy, E. Gandhi, P.,Winkler,A.,Cramer,D.,&Bradley,M.,2010;seeChapter9thisbook.
http://www.routledgementalhealth.com/school-rampage-shootings-and-other-youth-disturbances-9780415877480
21School Shootings and Other Youth Problems
AttachmentResearch on parent–child/infant attachment has demonstrated theimportance of early attachment relationships (Cassidy & Shaver,1999). Caregiver–youth relationships evolve over time and continuetoinfluencewell-beingandfunctioning.Infantsandchildrenwhoarevaluedandsensitivelycaredfordevelopqualities(e.g.,goodself-con-fidence and self-esteem, reasonable trust, empathy, and the capacityto self-reflect and to self-soothe) that enhance the ability to be pro-ductive,competent(personallyandinterpersonally),andresilient(i.e.,thefacilitytodowellinthefaceofadversity;seeFosha,2003;Knox,2003a,b;Main,1995;Nader,2008).Childrenwithsecureearlyandongoingattachmentsaremoreresistanttostressandarelessvulner-able toproblembehaviorsandotherpsychopathology (Fosha,2003;Weinfield, Sroufe, Egeland, & Carlson, 1999; Chapter 6). They aremorelikelytoreboundtowardadequatefunctioningfollowingaperiodoftroubledbehavior.Incontrast,insensitive,frightening,orconfusingcaremayresultinthelackofresilienceandinbehavioral,temperamen-tal,andemotionaldifficulties.Disorganized/disorientedattachments,for example, predict later chronic disturbances of affect regulation,stress management, hostile-aggressive behavior, a predisposition torelationalaggression,andriskofanumberofmentaldisorders(Lyons-Ruth&Jacobvitz,1999;Schore,2003).Notably,aswillbediscussedinChapter6,insecureordisorganizedattachmentshavebeenassoci-atedwithaggression,lowself-esteem,depressive,anxiety,dissociative,somatic,externalizing, internalizing,andoverallpsychopathology inchildhood, adolescence, and young adulthood, as well as to vulner-abilities to a number of disturbances including PTSD and being ledintoactsofviolence(e.g.,terrorism)(Hesseetal.,2003;Lyons-Ruth,Zeanah, & Benoit, 2003; Muller, Sicoli, & Lemieux, 2000; Scheff,1997; Volkan, 2001; see Nader, 2008 for a summary). Adolescents’insecure–dismissing attachmentsalsohavebeenlinkedtoexternaliz-ingproblems (e.g., aggressionordelinquency, conduct disorder, andsubstanceabuse;Allen&Land,1999).
Trauma and AdversityTraumaticreactionsareassociatedwithanumberofmentalhealthprob-lemsincludingaggressionorsuicidality.Overtaggression(e.g.,bullyingand other assaults, childhood abuse), relational aggression (e.g., rela-tional bullying, exclusion, depersonalizing gossip), and other traumas(e.g.,witnessingdomesticviolence,traumaticdeathsoflovedones)oftenareamongtheexperiencesofthosewhocommittedmultipleshootings
http://www.routledgementalhealth.com/school-rampage-shootings-and-other-youth-disturbances-9780415877480
22 Kathleen Nader
at schools (Henry, 2009; Nader, 2008). For example, the UT clocktowershooter’sfatherabusedhim.Incarceratedviolentadolescentssig-nificantlymoreoftenthannothavehistoriesofviolenttraumas(Ford,2002).Anumberofclinicianshaveobserved that severe, repeated,orvaried traumas damage the core self or personal spirit (Ford, 2002;Kalsched,1996;Knox,2003a;Nader,2008;Pearlman,2001;Wilson,2004).Asnoted,dysregulationofemotionandbehaviormayalsoresult(Ford&Courtois,2009;vanderKolk,2005).
SupportSomeindividualsneedmorealonetimethanothers.Some individualshave less regard for others than the average person. Nevertheless, allindividualsneedagoodsupportsystem.Forexample,researchsuggeststhatmentalhealthoutcomesfollowingadversitieshavebeenbetterwithincreasedlevelsofsocialsupport(Kilpatricketal.,2007;Scheeringa,inpress).Researchhasnowdemonstratedthatthecombinationofstruc-ture(consistentenforcementofschooldiscipline)andsupport(availabil-ity of caring adults) in schools is associated with lower bullying andvictimizationrates(whenschoolsize,ethnicity,andlow-incomearecon-trolledfor;Gregoryetal.,2010).
National Influences
Societies and religions differ in their emphasis on independence orconnectedness–interdependence (Hofstede, 1980; Shiang, 2000). Theimportanceofcompetitivenessandfamemayberelatedtothisorienta-tionand/ortothemediathatinfluencestheirdesirability.Pushingchil-dren to outdo their peers is sometimes motivated by a desire to giveachildanadvantage in life. Ifcompetitiondoesnot includeagoalofenhancingeachindividual’spersonaltalentsandskills,somemaybenefitwhile others suffer from its effects. Emphases on, for example, com-petitionand independence influenceyouth’smotivationssuchas thoserelatedtoratingtheirpersonalworth,valuingothers,andcommittingoravoidingaggression.Inadditiontothosevaluestaughtandmodeledinthehome,muchofthenationalvaluesystemisshapedorreinforcedbyelectronicmedia.
MediaAlthough entertainment media can have a positive (e.g., increasinghelpingbehaviors)oranegativeeffectonyouth,acrossstudies,violentmedia,inTV,movies,videogames,music,andcomicbooks,havebeen
http://www.routledgementalhealth.com/school-rampage-shootings-and-other-youth-disturbances-9780415877480
23School Shootings and Other Youth Problems
linkedtoaggressivethoughtsandbehaviors,angryfeelings,andarousallevels(Nader,2010).Well-designedresearchhasrepeatedlyshownthatthe effects of watching electronic media violence (i.e., the intentionalinjuryorirritationofapersonbyanotherpersonorcharacter)increasesthe risk of behaving aggressively right after viewing and years later(Andersonetal.,2010;Huesmann,2007,2010;Bushman&Huesmann,2006).Evenaftercontrollingforearlyaggressiveness,habitualexposuretomediaviolence inmiddle-childhoodpredicted increasedaggressive-ness1,3,10,15,and22yearslater(Huesmann,2007).
IMPLICATIONS
Multiplefactorsinfluenceaggressivebehaviorsandothermentalhealthdisturbances.Anumberofyouthandenvironmentalcharacteristicshavebeenidentifiedasrelevanttothemanifestationofaggressionandotherdisturbances. In part, because children exhibiting persistent disrup-tivebehaviorsaremore likely tobecomedelinquents,anddelinquentsaremore likelytobecomechronic,serious,orviolentoffenders,someobserversbelievethatprovidinginterventionsasearlyasthepreschoolleveliscriticalinpreventingtheemergenceofdisruptivebehaviorsandchilddelinquency(Loeber,Farrington,&Petechuk,2003).Infact,pre-vention begins with the child’s beginnings. Early and ongoing secureattachmentrelationshipsandotherparentingpracticesmayenabletheskills and habits to live without resorting to aggression (Chapter 6).Additional interventionscanbeused inpreschoolandthroughouttheelementaryschoolyearstoassistprevention.
Anumberofearlyinterventionsareassociatedwithpreventionofaggressiveandotherbehavioralandmentalhealthdisturbances.Amongthem are teaching youth social skills, coping skills, and empathy, aswellascreatingenvironmentsthatenhancesupportandsecureattach-ments,donottoleratebullying,provideskillsfordealingwithbullies,andinstillhealthycompetition.Tobeeffective,interventionsmustbeaimedatbothsidesoftheproblem—would-bekillersandtheenviron-ments thatproduce them. Someof thewell-known targeted/rampageshootershavebeenvictimsofbulliesbeforelashingoutinviolence.Aswillbeclear inthechaptersofSectionI,bullyinginschoolsmustbeaddressedearly.ManyoftheinterventionsdiscussedinthechaptersofSectionIIofthisbookmayassistbulliesandtheirvictimswhomightbecomeviolent.
As discussed in Chapter 2, rejecting experiences such as earlyinsecureattachments,bullying,andotherhumiliationsmayengenderintensefeelingsofhelplessnessandhopelessness,rage,andvulnerability
http://www.routledgementalhealth.com/school-rampage-shootings-and-other-youth-disturbances-9780415877480
24 Kathleen Nader
thatleadtoself-destructivebehaviors,violence,orvulnerabilitytobemanipulated by others who intend harm. Those who train terroristsoftenchoosefromthosewhohavesufferedsevereorongoingtraumas,abandonment, or other repeated humiliations (Scheff, 1997; Volkan,2001). Early interventions may reduce vulnerabilities and increaseskills that provide choices other than aggression. As Chapter 9 willdemonstrate, youth can learn to respond toaggressors in away thatmakestheircontinuedaggressionless likely.Valuingofothersandofuniquenesscanbelearnedinandoutsideofschools.Aswillbeshown(Chapters3and10),increasingconnectionamongandbetweenyouthandadults in schools andathome is an important aspectofpreven-tion.Tobemosteffective,interventionsbeginearlyandincludeparents,schools,andcommunities.
REFERENCES
Abbott,M.,Joireman,J.,&Stroh,H. (2002).The influenceofdistrictsize,schoolsize,andsocioeconomicstatusonstudentachievementinWashington:Areplicationstudyusinghierarchicallinearmodel-ing. Lynnwood,WA:Washington School Research Center Report#3.ED470338.
Allen,K.,Cornell,D.,Lorek,E.,&Sheras,P.(2008).Responseofschoolpersonneltostudentthreatassessmenttraining.School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 19(3),319–332.
Allen,J.P.,&Land,D.(1999).Attachmentinadolescence.InJ.Cassidy&P.R.Shaver(Eds.),Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications(pp.319–335).NewYork:GuilfordPress.
AmericanPsychologicalAssociationZeroToleranceTaskForce(2008).Arezerotolerancepolicieseffectiveinschools?Anevidentiaryreviewandrecommendations.American Psychologist, 63(9),852–862.
Anderson, C.A., Shibuya,A., Ihori, N., Swing, E. L., Bushman, B. J.,Sakamoto,A.,…Saleem,M.(2010).Violentvideogameeffectsonaggression,empathy,andprosocialbehaviorinEasternandWesterncountries.Psychological Bulletin, 136, 151–173.
Angold,A., & Heim, C. (2007).A developmental perspective, with afocusonchildhood trauma. InW.Narrow,M.First,P.Sirovatka,&D.Regier (Eds.).Age and gender considerations in psychiatric diagnosis: A research agenda for DSM-V.,(pp.81–100).Arlington,VA:AmericanPsychiatricPublishing,Inc.
Bennett,P.,Elliott,M.,&Peters,D.(2005).Classroomandfamilyeffectson children’s social and behavioral problems. The Elementary School Journal, 105(5),461–480.
http://www.routledgementalhealth.com/school-rampage-shootings-and-other-youth-disturbances-9780415877480
25School Shootings and Other Youth Problems
Beran,T.,&Lupart,J.(2009).Therelationshipbetweenschoolachieve-mentandpeerharassmentinCanadianadolescents:Theimportanceofmediatingfactors.School Psychology International, 30,75–91.
Borum, R., Cornell, D., Modzeleski,W., & Jimerson, S. (2010).Whatcan be done about school shootings? A review of the evidence.Educational Researcher, 39(1),27–37.
Bowes,L.,Arseneault,L.,Maughan,B.,Taylor,A.,Caspi,A.,&Moffitt,T.(2009).School,neighborhood,andfamilyfactorsareassociatedwith children’s bullying involvement: A nationally representativelongitudinal study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry,2009May;48(5):545–53.
Brooks,K., Schiraldi,V.,&Ziedenberg, J. (2000).School house hype: Two years later.CenteronJuvenileandCriminalJustice(www.cjcj.org/schoolhousehype.html).
Buckner,J.,Mezzacappa,E.,&Beardslee,W.(2009).Self-regulationanditsrelationstoadaptivefunctioninginlowincomeyouths.American Journal of Orthopsychiatry,79(1),19–30.
Bushman,B.,&Huesmann,L.(2006).Short-termandlong-termeffectsofviolentmediaonaggressioninchildrenandadults.Archives of Pediatric Adolescent Medicine, 160,348–352.
Cassidy, J., & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.). (1999). Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications.NewYork:GuilfordPress.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2009b). YouthViolence:FactsataGlance.Downloadedon5/30/10 fromwww.cdc.gov/violenceprevention.
CDC(2008b).Youthriskbehavioralsurveillance—UnitedStates,2007.MMWR57(No.SS–4).
Chung,H.,&Steinberg,L.(2006).Relationsbetweenneighborhoodfac-tors,parentingbehaviors,peerdeviance,anddelinquencyamongseri-ousjuvenileoffenders.Developmental Psychology,42(2),319–331.
Cornell,D.(1990).Prioradjustmentofviolentjuvenileoffenders.Law and Human Behavior, 14,569–578.
Cornell, D. (2006). School violence: Fears versus facts. Mahwah, NJ:LawrenceErlbaum.
Cornell,D.,&Bandyopadhyay,S.(2010).Theassessmentofbullying.InS.R.Jimerson,S.M.Swearer,&D.L.Espelage(Eds.),The hand-book of bullying in schools: An international perspective (pp.265–276).NewYork:Routledge.
Cornell, D., Benedek, E., & Benedek, D. (1987). Juvenile homicide:Prior adjustment and a proposed typology. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 57,383–393.
Cornell,D.,&Sheras,P. (2006).Guidelines for responding to student threats of violence.Longmont,CO:SoprisWest.
http://www.routledgementalhealth.com/school-rampage-shootings-and-other-youth-disturbances-9780415877480
26 Kathleen Nader
Cornell,D., Sheras,P.,Gregory,A.,&Fan,X. (2009).A retrospectivestudyofschoolsafetyconditionsinhighschoolsusingtheVirginiathreatassessmentguidelinesversusalternativeapproaches.SchoolPsychology Quarterly,24,119–129.
Cotton, K. (1996). Social Benefits of Small-Scale Schooling. ERICDIGEST ED401088 1996-12-00 Retrieved 6/19/08 fromhttp://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2/content_storage_01/0000000b/80/2a/27/0c.pdf
Crick, N., & Dodge, K. (1994).A review and reformulation of socialinformation-processingmechanismsinchildren’ssocialadjustment.PsychologicalBulletin,115,74–101.
Crick, N., & Dodge, K. (1996). Social information-processing mecha-nisms in reactive and proactive aggression. Child Development, 67(3),993–1002.
Cunningham,N.(2007).Levelofbondingtoschoolandperceptionoftheschoolenvironmentbybullies,victims,andbullyvictims.The Journal of Early Adolescence 27(4),457–478.
Daniels,J.,Royster,T.,Vecchi,G.,&Pshenishy,E.(2010a).Barricadedcaptive situations in schools:Mitigationand response. Journal of Family Violence, 25,587–594.
Daniels,J.,Volungis,A.,Pshenishy,E.Gandhi,P.,Winkler,A.,Cramer,D.,&Bradley,M.(2010b).Aqualitativeinvestigationofavertedschoolshootingrampages.The Counseling Psychologist, 38(1),69–95.
Davis,C.(2004).Children who kill: Profiles of preteen and teenage kill-ers.Croydon,Surrey,UK:BookmarqueLtd.
Douglas,K.,&Porter,R.(2010).RecognitionofdisgustedfacialexpressionsinseveredepressionThe British Journal of Psychiatry, 197,156–157.
Fletcher,A.,Steinberg,L.,&Williams-Wheeler,M.(2004).Parentalinflu-encesonadolescentproblembehavior:RevisitingStattinandKerr.Child Development,75(3),781–796.
Ford, J. D. (2002). Traumatic victimization in childhood and persis-tent problems with oppositional-defiance. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma, 6(1),25–58.
Ford, J., & Courtois, C. (2009). Defining and understanding complextrauma.InC.Courtois&J.Ford(Eds.),Treating complex traumatic stress disorders (pp.13–30). NewYork:Guilford.
Fosha, D. (2003). Dyadic regulation and experiential work with emo-tionandrelatednessintraumaanddisorganizedattachment.InM.Solomon&D.J.Siegel(Eds.),Healing trauma(pp.228–281).NewYork:W.W.Norton.
Frewen,P.,Dozois,D.,Neufeld,R.,&Lanius,R.(2008).Meta-analysisofalexithymiainPosttraumaticStressDisorder.Journal of Traumatic Stress,21(2),243–246.
http://www.routledgementalhealth.com/school-rampage-shootings-and-other-youth-disturbances-9780415877480
27School Shootings and Other Youth Problems
Georgiou,S.,&Stavrinides,P.(2008).Bullies,victimsandbully-victims:Psychosocial profiles and attribution styles. School Psychology International, 29(5),574–589.
Gould,M., Greenberg,T., VeltingD.,& Shaffer,D.(2006).Youthsuicide:Areview.Prevention Researcher, 13(3),3–7.
Greenwald,R.(Ed.).(2002).Trauma and juvenile delinquency: Theory, research, and interventions.NewYork:HaworthPress.
Gregory, A., Cornell, D., Fan, X., Sheras, P., Shih, T., & Huang, F.(2010).Authoritativeschooldiscipline:Highschoolpracticesasso-ciated with lower student bullying and victimization. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102,483–496.
Grigorenko,E.L.(2002).Insearchofthegeneticengramofpersonality.InD.Cervone&W.Mischel(Eds.),Advances in personality science(pp.29–82).NewYork:GuilfordPress.
Grynberg,D.,Luminet,O.,Corneille,O.,Grèzes,J.,&Berthoz,S.(2010).Alexithymiaintheinterpersonaldomain:Ageneraldeficitofempa-thy?Personality and Individual Differences 49,845–850.
Guttman,H.,&Laporte,L.(2002).Alexithymia,empathy,andpsycho-logical symptoms in a family context. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 43,448–455.
Hammen,C.,&Rudolph,K.D.(2003).Childhoodmooddisorders.InE.J.Mash&R.A.Barkley(Eds.),Child psychopathology(2nded.,233–278).NewYork:GuilfordPress.
Hasking, P. (2007). Reinforcement sensitivity, coping, and delinquentbehaviorinadolescents.Journal of Adolescence, 30(5),739–749.
Hawker, D., & Boulton, M. (2000). Twenty years’ research on peervictimization and psychosocial maladjustment: A meta-analyticreviewofcross-sectionalstudies.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,41,441–455.
Henry,S.(2009).SchoolviolencebeyondColumbine:Acomplexprob-lem inneedof an interdisciplinaryanalysis.American Behavioral Scientist, 52(9), 1246–1265.
Hesse, E., Main, M.,Abrams, K.Y., & Rifkin,A. (2003). Unresolvedstatesregardinglossorabusecanhave“second-generation”effects:Disorganization,roleinversion,andfrighteningideationintheoff-springoftraumatized,non-maltreatingparents.InM.Solomon&D.J.Siegel(Eds.),Healing trauma(pp.57–106).NewYork:W.W.Norton.
Hofstede,G.(1980).Motivation,leadership,andorganization:DoAmericantheoriesapplyabroad?Organizational Dynamics,9, 42–61.
Hopkins, G. (2004). Teaching self-control. National Education Association. Retrieved June 18, 2008 from http://www.nea.org/classmanagement/ifc040629.html
http://www.routledgementalhealth.com/school-rampage-shootings-and-other-youth-disturbances-9780415877480
28 Kathleen Nader
Huesmann,R.L.(2007).Theimpactofelectronicmediaviolence:Scientifictheoryandresearch.Journal of Adolescent Health 41,S6–S13.
Kaiser,D.A.(2005).Schoolshootings,highschoolsize,andneurobio-logicalconsiderations.Journal of Neurotherapy,9(3),101–115.
Kalsched,D.(1996).The inner world of trauma: Archetypal defenses of the personal spirit.London:Brunner-Routledge.
Kaufman,P.,Chen,X.,Choy,S.,Ruddy,S.A.,Miller,A.K.,Chandler,K.A.,Chapman,C.D.,Rand,M.R.,&Klaus,P.(1999).Indicators of school crime and safety, 1999.Washington,D.C.:U.S.Departmentof Education (NCES 1999-057) and U.S. Department of Justice(NCJ-178906).
Kilpatrick,D.,Koenen,K.,Ruggiero,K.,Acierno,R.,Galea,S.,Resnick,H.etal.(2007).Serotonintransportergenotypeandsocialsupportandmoderationofposttraumaticstressdisorderanddepressioninhurri-cane-exposedadults.American Journal of Psychiatry, 164(11),1–7.
Klein, J.,&Cornell,D. (2010). Is the linkbetween largehigh schoolsand student victimization an illusion? Journal of Educational Psychology, 102, 933–946.
Knox,J.(2003a).Archetype, attraction, analysis: Jungian psychology and the emergent mind.NewYork:Brunner-Routledge.
Knox,J.(2003b).Traumaanddefenses:Theirroots inrelationship,anoverview.Journal of Analytical Psychology, 48,511–530.
Laird,R.,Jordan,K.,Dodge,K.,Pettit,G.,&Bates,J.(2001).Peerrejec-tion inchildhood, involvementwithantisocialpeers inearlyado-lescence,andthedevelopmentofexternalizingbehaviorproblems.Development andPsychopathology, 13,337–354.
Langenkamp,A., & Frisco, M. (2008). Family transitions and adoles-centsevereemotionaldistress:Thesalienceoffamilycontext.Social Problems,55(2),238–253.
Leithwood,K.&Jantzi,D.(2009).Reviewofempiricalevidenceaboutschool size effects: A policy perspective. Review of Educational Research, 79(1),464–490.
Lieberman,J.(2006).The shooting game. SantaAna,CA:SevenLocks.Loeber,R., Farrington,D.,&Petechuk,D. (2003).Childdelinquency:
Early intervention and prevention. Child Delinquency Bulletin Series. U.S.DepartmentofJustice.
Lubell, K. &Vetter, J. (2006). Suicide and youth violence prevention:The promise of an integrated approach. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 11(2), 167–175.
Lyons-Ruth, K., & Jacobvitz, D. (1999). Attachment disorganization:Unresolved loss, relational violence and lapses in behavioral andattentionalstrategies.InJ.Cassidy&P.Shaver(Eds.),Handbook of attachment(pp.469–496).NewYork:GuilfordPress.
http://www.routledgementalhealth.com/school-rampage-shootings-and-other-youth-disturbances-9780415877480
29School Shootings and Other Youth Problems
Lyons-Ruth,K.,Zeanah,C.H.,&Benoit,D.(2003).Disorderandriskfordisorderduringinfancyandtoddlerhood.InE.J.Mash&R.A.Barkley(Eds.),Child psychopathology (2nded.,pp.589–631).NewYork:GuilfordPress.
Main,M.(1995).Recentstudiesinattachment:Overviewwithselectedimplicationsforclinicalwork.InS.Goldberg,R.Muir,&J.Kerr(Eds.),Attachmenttheory: Social, developmental and clinical per-spectives (pp.407–472).Hillsdale,NJ:AnalyticPress.
McBurnett,K.,King,J.,&Scarpa,A.(2003).Thehypothalamic-pitu-itary-adrenal system (HPA)and thedevelopmentof aggressive,antisocial, and substance abusedisorders. InD.Cicchetti&E.Walker (Eds.), Neurodevelopmental mechanisms in psychopa-thology (pp. 324–344). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge UniversityPress.
Monk,D.&Haller,E.(1993).Predictorsofhighschoolacademiccourseofferings:Theroleofschoolsize.American Educational Research Journal, 30(1),3–21.
Muller, R., Sicoli, L., & Lemieux, K. E. (2000). Relationship betweenattachmentstyleandposttraumaticstresssymptomatologyamongadults who report the experience of childhood abuse. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 13(2),321–332.
Nader,K. (2008).Understanding and assessing trauma in children and adolescents: Measures, methods, and youth in context.NewYork:Routledge.
Nader,K. (2010).Childrenandadolescents’ exposure to themass vio-lenceofwarandterrorism:Roleofthemedia.InN.B.Webb(Ed.),Helping bereaved children (3rd edition,pp.215–239).NewYork:Guilford.
Nader, K. (2011). Trauma in children and adolescents: Issues relatedto age and complex traumatic reactions. Journal of Child and Adolescent Trauma, 4(3),161–180.
Nansel,T.,Overpeck,M.,Haynie,D.,Ruan,W.,&Scheidt,P. (2003).Relationships between bullying and violence among US youth.Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine,157(4),348–353.
Nansel, T., Overpeck, M., Pilla, R., Ruan, W., Simons-Morton, B., &Scheidt,P.(2001).BullyingbehaviorsamongUSyouth.Journal of the American Medical Association,285(16),2094–2100.
National School SafetyCenter (NSSC,2006).Reviewof school safetyresearch.WestlakeVillage,CA:NSSC.
O’Toole, M., & the Critical Incident Response Group (2000). The school shooter: A threat assessment perspective.Quantico,VA:FBIAcademyNationalCenterfortheAnalysisofViolentCrime.
http://www.routledgementalhealth.com/school-rampage-shootings-and-other-youth-disturbances-9780415877480
30 Kathleen Nader
Pearlman,L.A.(2001).TreatmentofpersonswithcomplexPTSDandother trauma-related disruptions of the self. In J. P. Wilson, M.Friedman, & J. Lindy (Eds.), Treating psychological trauma and PTSD(pp.205–236).NewYork:GuilfordPress.
Peeters,M.,Cillessen,A.,&Scholte,R. (2010).Cluelessorpowerful?Identifying subtypes of bullies in adolescence. Journal of Youth Adolescence, 39,1041–1052.
Pellegrini,A.D.(2003).Perceptionsandfunctionsofplayandrealfight-inginearlyadolescence.Child Development, 74 (5),1522–1533.
Pellegrini,A.D.,&Smith,P.K.(1998).Physicalactivityplay:Thenatureand function of a neglected aspect of play. Child Development, 69(3),577–598.
Perry, B., Pollard, R., Blakely, T., Baker, W., & Vigilante, D. (1995).Childhoodtrauma,theneurobiologyofadaptationand‘use-depen-dent’developmentofthebrain:How‘states’become‘traits’.Infant Mental Health Journal, 16(4),271–291.
Phillips, D. (2007). Punking and bullying strategies in middle school,highschool,andbeyond.Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 22(2),158–178.
Pollack, W. (2004). Parent–child connections: The essential compo-nentforpositiveyouthdevelopmentandmentalhealth,safecom-munities, and academic achievement. New Directions for YouthDevelopment,103,17–30.
Posner, M., & Rothbart, M. (2007). Educating the human brain.Washington,DC:AmericanPsychologicalAssociation.
Robers,S.,Zhang,J.,Truman,J.,&Snyder,T.(2010).Indicatorsofschoolcrimeandsafety:2010.(NCES2011-002/NCJ230812).NationalCenter for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education,and Bureau of Justice Statistics, Office of Justice Programs, U.S.DepartmentofJustice.Washington,DC.Availablefromhttp://nces.ed.govorhttp://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov
Rothbart,M.,&Rueda,M.(2005).Thedevelopmentofeffortfulcon-trol.InU.Mayr,E.Awh,&S.Keele(Eds.),Developingindividuality in the human brain: A Festschrift honoring Michael I. Posner(pp.167–188).Washington,DC:AmericanPsycholologicalAssociation.
Sapolsky, R. M. (1998). Biology and human behavior: The neurologi-cal origins of individuality [Videotape series]. Chantilly,VA:TheTeachingCompany.
Scaramella,L.,Sohr-Preston,S.,Callahan,K.,&Mirabile,S.(2008).Atestofthefamilystressmodelontoddler-agedchildren’sadjustmentamongHurricaneKatrinaimpactedandnonimpactedlow-incomefamilies. Journal ofClinical Child & Adolescent Psychology,37(3),530–541.
http://www.routledgementalhealth.com/school-rampage-shootings-and-other-youth-disturbances-9780415877480
31School Shootings and Other Youth Problems
Scheeringa,M.(2011).PTSDinchildrenyoungerthanageof13:Towardsdevelopmentallysensitiveassessmentandmanagement.Journal of Child and Adolescent Trauma, 4(3),181–191.
Scheff,T. (1997). Deconstructing rage. Retrieved September 17, 2003,fromhttp://www.soc.ucsb.edu/faculty/scheff/7.html
Schore,A.N.(2003).Earlyrelationaltrauma,disorganizedattachment,andthedevelopmentofapredispositiontoviolence.InM.Solomon&D.J.Siegel(Eds.),Healing trauma(pp.107–167).NewYork:W.W.Norton.
Schwartz,D.,Dodge,K.,&Coie, J. (1993).Theemergenceofchronicpeervictimizationinboys’playgroups.Child Development, 64(6),1755–1772.
Schmidt,L.,&Fox,N.(2002).Individualdifferencesinchildhoodshy-ness.InD.Cervone&W.Mischel(Eds.),Advances in personality science(pp.83–105).NewYork:GuilfordPress.
Seals,D.,&Young,J.(2003).Bullyingandvictimization:Prevalenceandrelationshiptogender,gradelevel,ethnicity,self-esteem,anddepres-sion.Adolescence, 38(152),735–747.
Semrud-Clikeman,M.,&Glass,K.(2010).Therelationofhumorandchilddevelopment:Social,adaptive,andemotionalaspects. Journal of Child Neurology, 25, 1248–1260.
Shiang,J.(2000).Consideringculturalbeliefsandbehaviorsinthestudyof suicide. InR.Maris,S.Canetto, J.McIntosh,&M.Silverman(Eds.),Review of suicidology(pp.226–241).NewYork:Guilford.
Snyder,T.,&Dillow,S.(2010).Digest of Education Statistics 2009 (NCES2010-013). National Center for Education Statistics, Institute ofEducation Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Washington,DC.
Snyder,H.,&Sickmund,M.(1999).Juvenileoffendersandvictims:1999national report (report no. NCJ 178257). Washington, DC: U.S.DepartmentofJustice,OfficeofJusticePrograms,OfficeofJuvenileJusticeandDelinquencyPrevention.
Stearns,P.(2008).TexasandVirginia:AbloodiedwindowintochangesinAmericanpubliclife.Journal of Social History, 42(2),299–318.
Stein, P.,&Kendall, J. (2004).Psychological trauma and the develop-ing brain: Neurologically based interventions for troubled children.NewYork:HaworthPress.
Stevens,M.,Kiehl,K.,Pearlson,G.,&Calhoun,V. (2007).Functionalneuralnetworksunderlyingresponseinhibitioninadolescentsandadults.Behavioural Brain Research,181(1),12–22.
Sutton,J.,Smith,P.K.,&Swettenham,J. (1999).Socialcognitionandbullying:Socialinadequacyorskilledmanipulation?British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 17,435–450.
http://www.routledgementalhealth.com/school-rampage-shootings-and-other-youth-disturbances-9780415877480
32 Kathleen Nader
vanderKolk,B.(2005).Developmentaltraumadisorder:Towardaratio-naldiagnosisforchildrenwithcomplextraumahistories.Psychiatric Annals, 35(5),401–408.
vanderKolk,B.A.,&Sapporta,J. (1991).Thebiologicalresponsetopsychictrauma:Mechanismsandtreatmentofintrusionandnumb-ing.AnxietyResearch, 4,199–212.
Volkan,V.D. (2001). September11and societal regression.Mind and Human Interaction, 12,196–216.
Wang,J.,Ionnatti,R.,&Nansel,T.(2009).Schoolbullyingamongado-lescentsintheUnitedStates:Physical,verbal,relational,andcyber.Journal of Adolescent Health, 45,368–375.
Weinfield,N.,Sroufe,L.,Egeland,B.,&Carlson,E.A.(1999).Thenatureofindividualdifferencesininfant-caregiverattachment.InJ.Cassidy&P.R.Shaver(Eds.),Handbook of attachment(pp.68–88).NewYork:GuilfordPress.
Werblow,J.,&Duesbery,L.(2009).Theimpactofhighschoolsizeonmathachievementanddropoutrate.The High School Journal, 92,14–23.
Werblow,J.,Robinson,Q.,&Duesbery,L.(2010).Regardlessofschoolsize, school climate matters: How dimensions of school climateaffect student dropout rate regardless of high school size. In W.Hoy,&M.DiPaola (Eds.),Analyzing school contexts: Influences of principals and teachers in the service of students(pp.191–208).Greenwich,CT:IAPInformationAgePublishing.
Wilson, J. P. (2004).The broken spirit: Post-traumatic damage to theself. InJ.P.Wilson&B.Drozdek (Eds.),Broken spirits: Treating traumatized asylum seekers, refugees, war and torture victims (pp.107–155).NewYork:Brunner-Routledge.
http://www.routledgementalhealth.com/school-rampage-shootings-and-other-youth-disturbances-9780415877480