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Theories of Instructional Design Psychological Foundations, Learning Environments & Learner Motivation
Jordan Carswell
February 4, 2008
Assignment 2
INST 5131
Philosophical Foundations Many psychological theories have contributed to the field of instructional design.
Underlying them all, however, is the belief that instruction will lead to learning.
(Reiser and Dempsey, 2007)
The central hypothesis of cognitive science is that thinking can best be understood in terms of representational structures in the mind and computational procedures that operate on those structures.
Sensory Memory
• Perceive, recognize, and code patterns
Short-term Memory
• Temporary holding; make connections
Long-term Memory
• Remember and apply information over time
(Reiser and Dempsey, 2007)
Mind as Computer
(Stanford University, 2007, para. 9)
The Learning Sciences
Grounded in the cognitive sciences
Learner as active agent, responsible for creating understanding
Design Research
Formative experiments
Learning takes place within the context of research
Constructivism is a philosophy of learning founded on the premise that, by reflecting on our experiences, we construct our own understanding of the world we live in. Each of us generates our own “rules” and “mental models,” which we use to make sense of our experiences. Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting our mental models to accommodate new experiences.
(Funderstanding, 2001, para. 1) (Reiser and Dempsey, 2007)
Defining Characteristics
Learning takes place within a community of practice
Knowledge is gained in the process of participating in the activities of the community
Individual
Community
Organization
Learning as Participation
(Wenger, 1998, as cited in Reiser and Dempsey 2007) (Reiser and Dempsey, 2007)
The activity in which knowledge is developed and deployed, it is now argued, is not separable from or ancillary to learning and cognition.
(Brown, 1989, p. 32)
Defining Characteristics Diversity of opinions
Connecting nodes of information
Learning can reside anywhere
Connections must be nurtured
Recognition of connections
Staying current with information
Individual decision-making
Connectivism is the integration of principles explored by chaos, network, and complexity and self-organization theories.
Learning is a process that occurs within nebulous environments of shifting core elements – not entirely under the control of the individual.
(Siemens, 2004, paras. 25-27)
design
cognitive
constructivist
situational
connectivist
Learning takes place in diverse settings. No one theory holds true for all situations.
Therefore, good design is agnostic, analyzing each unique problem and finding the appropriate solution whatever the source.
Learning Environments Whether in a lecture hall, on the job, or from a home computer, learning is shaped by place.
The learning environment is a key component of any theory of instructional design.
Learning Environment
Students observe the practices of experts as they learn to perform tasks on their own
Abstract tasks are presented in a real-life context
Task’s processes are visible to all learners
Tasks are varied to encourage skill transfer by learners
In ancient times, teaching and learning were accomplished through apprenticeship: We taught our children how to speak, grow crops, craft cabinets, or tailor clothes by showing them how and by helping them do it.
(Collins, 1991) (Collins, 1991, para. 1)
Communities of practice are groups of people who share a concern or a passion for something they do and learn how to do it better as they interact regularly.
Key Attributes
1 The Domain Shared competence and identity
2 The Community Shared activities and information
3 The Practice Shared experiences and resources (Wenger, n.d., para. 3)
(Wenger, n.d.)
PLEs aren’t an entity, structural
object or software program in the
sense of a learning management
system.
Essentially, they are a collection of
tools, brought together under the
conceptual notion of openness,
interoperability, and learner control.
What constitutes a PLE?
Learner constructed environment
Iterative, constantly open to revision and growth
Mash-ups of web-based tools– not one size fits all
(Siemens, 2007, para. 2)
iCamp iCamp is a research and development project funded by the European Commission under the IST (Information Society Technology) programme of FP6. The project aims at creating an infrastructure for collaboration and networking across systems, countries, and disciplines in Higher Education.
Pedagogically it is based on constructivist learning theories that puts more emphasis on self-organised learning, social networking, and the changing roles of educators.
(iCamp, n.d., para. 1)
Facilitators and learners in a
single virtual environment
Comprised of a collection of
open source software tools
Social constructivist approach
(iCamp, n.d.)
learn more: http://www.icamp.eu/
Massachusetts Institute of Technology Project Lecture and hands-on lab
experiments combined
Classroom redesigned for group interaction
Media-rich software for simulation and visualization
Technology-based learning materials
Learning Problem
Physics students were not engaged in the lecture hall environment (MIT, 2006)
Initial Results
Students significantly improved their understanding of physics in the TEAL environment (Dori and Belcher, 2005) (MIT, 2006)
On Visibility…
“As a web design instructor, I noticed that the quality of my students’ mastery of a task improved when they were able to observe the work of their classmates.”
On Modeling…
“Teaching faculty and staff how to use a new technology, I first show them how to do an activity and then sit with them as they repeat the activity on their own.”
Learner Motivation Human performance technology recognizes three influences on performance which must be addressed in successful instructional design.
Of these, motivation is critical as it plays a decisive role in whether a learner chooses to choose a goal or pursue an activity.
(Reiser and Dempsey, 2007)
I’d rather be kayaking…
• Attention • Relevance • Confidence • Satisfaction
Motivation
(Keller, 2006)
Design Process Recognize elements of
human motivation
Analyze and determine motivational requirements
Identify instruction that will stimulate motivation
Apply and evaluate plan
Behavior
Personal Factors
Environmental Factors
Learners’ motivations and actions are based more on what they believe to be true than what is actually true
Learners’ beliefs about their abilities often outweigh knowledge, skill, or experience in determining success
Success can be predicted based on what learners believe themselves capable of achieving
(Pajares, 2002)
Reciprocal Determinism
(Adapted from Pajares, 2002)
Success is variously attributed to internal factors within one’s control or external factors outside one’s control.
Learner’s interpretations are based on self-perceptions and a desire to maintain a positive self-image.
Internal Attribution
Success is determined by personal ability and effort
External Attribution
Success is determined by outside factors, i.e. task, environment, or others
(Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology, 2001)
(Vockell, n.d.)
Focused on the uncovering the key properties of a goal
Specificity and difficulty level
Goal effects on the individual, group and organization
Learning vs. performance goals
Mediators and moderators of goal effects
Goals as mediators
Goal source (self, assigned, group)
Self-efficacy
Personal Goal
Assigned Goal Performance
(Locke and Latham, 2002, p. 714) (Adapted from Locke and Latham, 2002, p. 709)
Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1988). Situated Cognition and the Culture of Learning.
Ft. Belvoir: Defense Technical Information Center.
Brown, J. S. (n.d.). New Learning Environments for the 21st Century. Retrieved February 2,
2009 from: http://www.johnseelybrown.com/newlearning.pdf
Collins, A. (1991). Cognitive Apprenticeship: Making Things Visible. American Educator: The
Professional Journal of the American Federation of Teachers. 15 (3), 6-11,38-46.
Dori, Y. J., & Belcher, J. (2005). How Does Technology-Enabled Active Learning Affect
Undergraduate Students' Understanding of Electromagnetism Concepts? JOURNAL
OF THE LEARNING SCIENCES. 14 (2), 243-279.
Funderstanding (2001). Constructivism. Retrieved February 2, 2009 from:
http://www.funderstanding.com/content/constructivism
Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology (2001). Attribution theory. Retrieved February 4, 2009 from
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g2699/is_0003/ai_2699000382
iCamp (n.d.). Crossing the border to the future of education. Retrieved February 3, 2009 from:
http://www.icamp.eu/
Keller, John (2006). What are the elements of learner motivation? Retrieved February 4, 2009
from: http://www.arcsmodel.com/Mot%20dsgn%20A%20cate.htm
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a Practically Useful Theory of Goal Setting and
Task Motivation. American Psychologist. 57 (9), 705-17.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (2006). Technology Enabled Active Learning (TEAL).
Retrieved February 3, 2009 from: http://icampus.mit.edu/projects/TEAL.shtml
Pajares (2002). Overview of social cognitive theory and of self-efficacy. Retrieved February 4,
2009 from http://www.emory.edu/EDUCATION/mfp/eff.html
Reiser, R.A. & Dempsey, J.V. (2007). Trends and issues in instructional design and technology
(2nd Edition). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall.
Siemens, George (2004). Connectivism: a learning theory for the digital age. Retrieved
February 3, 2009 from: http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/connectivism.htm
Siemens, George (2007). PLEs – I Acronym, Therefore I Exist. Retrieved February 3, 2009 from:
http://www.elearnspace.org/blog/2007/04/15/ples-i-acronym-therefore-i-exist/
Vockell, Edward (n.d.). Attribution Theory. Retrieved February 4, 2009 from:
http://education.calumet.purdue.edu/vockell/EdpsyBook/Edpsy5/edpsy5_attribution.htm
Wenger, E. (n.d.). Communities of practice. Retrieved February 3, 2009 from:
http://www.ewenger.com/theory/index.htm