The Scientific Revolution
Early 16th Century science was based on Aristotle.
Motionless earth fixed in the center of the universe
Surrounded by celestial spheres that moved in a perfect circle
The Great Chain of Being
Francis Bacon
The Scientific Method – A new way to do science
Inductive-
Bacon and Descartes'(Bacon = inductive, Descartes = deductive)
Bacon – Formalizes the empirical method
Descartes' – proves correspondence between geometry and algebra.. Creates analytic geometry.– Dualism – Mind and matter or the physical and
the spiritual
William Harvey
Medicine – Circular flow of blood from the heart
Microscope
The Telescope
Copernicus
1473-1543 Clergyman The universe revolved around a fixed sun Did not publish works until the year of his
death
Change of World View
The immense size of the universe The earthly world was similar to the heavens… earth is
just another planet Where was the kingdom of heaven? Did not Joshua bid the sun to stand still and not the earth 1616 The Catholic Church declares Copernican theory
as false
Brahe, Kepler, and Galileo
Brahe collected data Kepler’s 3laws of planetary motions
– Elliptical– Did not move at a uniform speed– The time it takes to orbit is directly related to the distance
from the sun
Galileo 1564 - 1642 Experimental method
Law of inertia
Changed a telescope from Holland and pointed it toward the heavens
Observed that the moon, is in many ways, like the surface of the earth. Western civilization turns the corner
Making sense of the universe
Nature and nature's light were hidden by night/ Then God said "Let Newton be!" and then there was light" – Alexander Pope
Newton “” 1647-1727
Law of Universal Gravitation – attraction to other bodies… precise and mathematical
The Solar System
Causes of the Scientific Revolution The Medieval Universities – Application of
scientific reasoning - and math from the crusades
The Renaissance – Humanism search of knowledge through antiquity improves math
The need for navigation tools - longitude
Science and the Church
Were Protestants more open to science?– Where there was a strong central religious
authority religious dogma ruled• Italy
• Holland
• England
Consequences of the Scientific Revolution Gave rise to international scientific
communities. New way of obtaining more knowledge
– More critical– Refused to base its conclusions on established
sources
But… little evidence that it was due to economic factors. It was first and foremost an intellectual movement
However – revolutions are coming Science and industrial arts exalted
Religion and morality are questioned
Knowledge was important because it made possible social, economic and political PROGRESS.
Causes for uncertainty
Scholars were cautious – as institutions could condemn
Previous wars of religion – Thirty Years War. A strong state demanded religious conformity
Skepticism – Bayle – nothing could ever be known beyond doubt
Skepticism- as the world shrinks
Europeans cut their beards and grew their hair long.
Turks shaved their heads and grew their beards long.
John Locke – rejects Descarte – with his tabula rasa
Locke’s Essay Concerning Human Understanding as the equal to Newton’s Principia
The Enlightenment
Natural science should be used understand all aspects of life… rationalism
Scientific method could be used to discover laws about human society… The birth of the social sciences.
Progress… Human being could create better societies
The French Philosophes Were they philosophers? More like early sociologists Why France
– French was the language of the educated– “Scientists” were not as suppressed as other parts of the
worldWhat were their concerns
Determined to reach the all of Europe’s educated elite… The Public…not “the blind and noisy multitude”
– Careful not to directly attack powerful institutions they wrote plays, books and satires that were not distributed widely or had had double meanings
Reformers More than Revolutionaries Montesquieu – separation of powers Francois Marie Arouet – Voltaire – satire
and religious toleration but never social or economic equality.
Diderot - encyclopedia Madame du Chatelet Deists
The Later Enlightenment-1770
D’Holbach – Humans are machines – free will is a myth – B.F. Skinner “Beyond Freedom and Dignity … positive and negative reinforcement (Late 60’s USA)
David Hume(1711-1776) The human mind is simply a bundle of impressions
Rousseau – The noble savage… Institutions that were created for progress actually corrupt
More Rousseau…
“The Social Contract”– The General Will – reflects the common
interest of the people– Popular Sovereignty– More on the general will… dictators and
democrats have used this to usurp power
Urban Culture and Public Opinion Books sales explode Less religious and more books on the arts and
sciences (1780) Smuggled books evaded censorship EUROPE WAS BECOMING MORE SECULAR
– Scandals
– Pornography
– Women using sex to conquer weak men
– Germany permitted freedom of the press
The Salons – Free From Censorship Women brought important men to discuss
the latest literature, science and philosophy Elite women exercised influence in the arts
– Rococo– Greater education for women– Madam Geoffrin
The Enlightenment and Absolutism Benevolent absolutism was the best
opportunity to improve society.
The people are children that need parental guidance
Prussia, Russia, and Austria
Prussia– Frederick II (The Great) (r.1740-1786)
• Daddy was the “solider king”
• Sonny tries to run away with his best friend and Daddy cuts his friend’s head off
• But… in 1740 he inherits the throne and invades Silesia
• The War of Austrian Succession
The War of Austrian Succession
1740-1748 Prussia adds 6 mil to its population
Austria would not let Silesia go peacefully– Maria Theresa allied herself with France and
Russia in the Seven Years War (In America it was called the French Indian War (1756-1763)
Frederick The Great Holds on But Gives in Peter III 1762 calls off the attack
The Seven Years War tempers his policies– Religious and academic toleration– Improved schools– Improved agriculture and industry– “Only the first servant of the state”– Did not free his own serfs
– Kept the right to expel the Jews whenever he wanted
Catherine the Great of Russia (r.1762-1796) German Peter the Great abolished hereditary
succession Catherine has Peter III killed for
withdrawing from the Seven Years War
Catherine had drunk deeply at the enlightenment well Three main goals
– Bring sophisticated western culture to Russia• Bring in western architecture
• Corresponds with Voltaire
– Domestic reform• Pugachev’s revolt 1773
• Peasants are dangerous
• 1775- nobles have absolute control of their serfs
Goals… continued
Territorial Expansion– Successful
• Crimea
• Caucasus
• Poland , divided among Austria, Russia, and Prussia– Kept Russian noble happy
Austrian Habsburgs
Maria Theresa– Limited power of the papacy– Strengthened central bureaucracy– Improve the life of agricultural workers
Habsburgs…Continued
Joseph II…Coregent to 1780 and ruled to 1790– Controlled the Catholic Church more closely– Religious toleration for Protestants and Jews– Abolishes serfdom from 1781-1789 (led to
turmoil from the nobles… cancelled in 1791)
Absolutism is France
King was still the best source of reform Louis XIV dies 1715. Nobles under the
Duke of Orleans make a comeback Restored the high courts of France – the
Parlements… They maintained the right to evaluate decrees before they became law
What once were middle-class judges were now well entrenched in the aristocracy
The Parlement of Paris 5% tax on everyone (because of the War of
Austrian Succession) was dropped.
Seven Years War 1756-1763 King tries to impose emergency taxes
Parlement of Paris rejects the tax “ to limit the king’s power and protect liberty.”
No taxes without the consent of The Parlement of Paris
Mapeou
Louis XV Reacts
Mapeou establishes a new more docile Parlement The king of his royal aura
– Pornography
– Scandal mongering
– The commoners of Paris were beginning to stir
– Royal power was strong enough to ride over the opposition but the king dies in 1774
– Louis XVI “What I should like most is to be loved.”
Overall influence of the Enlightenment France unlike the its eastern neighbors saw
a decline in absolutism The Enlightened Monarchs
– They did spread cultural values of the Enlightenment… especially Frederick and Catherine
• Secular • Education and interest in the arts• Reforms that would strengthen the state and
compete militarily…
Absolutists continued
Put state building reforms in a broader perspective
How humane laws could make the population more productive – Tolerating religious minorities– Simplifying legal codes and promoting
practical education