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THE RISORGIMENTO AND THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY1850- 1861
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PIEDMONT-SARDINIA AND CAVOUR• Kingdom of Piedmont remained as the only independent state after
1848: entered a time of moderate reform
• King Victor Emanuel II- constitutional monarch of a stable, independent state (would become the first King of Italy in 1860)
• Buffer state (however was forced to pay Austria a punishment)
• 1852 Camillo di Cavour became Prime Minister- head of a government of middle class politicians- his goal: MODERNIZE Piedmont
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CAVOUR• Great Britain was his
example
• Industrial might allowed for freedom of foreign affairs, dependent on no other
• Cavour, in his own mind wished for Piedmont to be a leading unification state- needed to industrialize first
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CAVOUR’S INITIATIVES• Expansion of international trade- trade agreements with many European states-
independent
• Railway construction increased drastically
• Textile industries- silk, cotton and woollens- thrived
• All of the modernization of the economy and infrastructure came from Cavour providing government subsidies
• Shortage of coal and iron- key for industry
• Cavour was a classical liberal, spent his youth travelling western Europe and Britain
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“I HAVE DISCOVERED THE ART OF DECEIVING DIPLOMATS. I TELL THEM THE TRUTH AND THEY NEVER BELIEVE ME”
- CAMILLO DI CAVOUR
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CAVOUR AND LIBERALISM• Cavour seems the classic liberal in the British mould- however on closer
examination this may not be so…
• He increased military reform and spending (not liberal)
• Cavour never let the constitution hinder his actions- he used parliament when it suited him and used the monarchy when it suited him
• Ruled through executive order often and sought parliament support for actions after he already did them…
• Similar to who…
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CAVOUR AND LIBERALISM• Piedmont’s electorate was 2% of the population
• He was in favour of unimpeded free market principles, however he wasn’t against the use of government subsidies to drive the economy where he wanted it to go
• A free press is a hallmark of liberalism- he did not hesitate in censoring the press often (including Mazzini’s)
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THE CRIMEAN WAR• For the first time since 1815 the Great Powers would go to
war…in Russia
• The Crimean War broke the log jam created by the Congress of Vienna and maintained by Metternich- it opened up Europe for reform
• It would be this war that has the most profound impact on both the unification of Italy and Germany
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THE CRIMEAN WAR• “politics hates a vacuum”- The Ottoman Empire had been in decline for
decades, creating a power vacuum in Asia Minor
• The Ottoman’s controlled the key maritime route between central Europe and the Mediterranean- the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus strait
• Multiple Turkish- Russo wars since the 1700’s over the control of this sea access
• As the Sultan’s power receded, Tsar Nicholas I hoped to gain what for generations had eluded the Romanovs- access to the mediterranean
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THE CRIMEAN WAR• July 1853 Russian forces
occupy the Danubian principalities
• Ottoman Empire declares war
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THE CRIMEAN WAR• France- interest in the Middle East, fear of Russian power in the region
• Britain opposed any access to the Mediterranean of the Russian fleet
• Therefore for their own interests, France and Britain supported the Turks in this war- moving both their fleets to the Black sea
• Late 1853 France and Britain declare war on Russia
• Weird problem here- no common border for the combatants- war would erupt on the Crimean Peninsula in 1854 as British and French troops landed
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PIEDMONT AND THE CRIMEAN WAR• Austria had seen itself as the grand master of Central
Europe- she pursued the only course of action she had- neutrality
• When Russia evacuates the Danubian Principalities, Austria is more than happy to occupy them
• The neutrality by Austria led to very little power in the peace settlement after- and it is this point that leads to the process of unifying Italy under Piedmont
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PIEDMONT AND THE CRIMEAN WAR• Cavour was very forward thinking- saw the potential that the war in Crimea
offered
• Backing of the major powers was needed if Piedmont was going to unite other Italian states
• Cavour calculated participation in the peace settlement that would occur after the war could allow for a ‘pitch’ to unite Italy or at least the right to some of the spoils of war
• He would be wrong…Piedmont saw only minor action in the war and was not given any respect toward Italian lands (after the war, French troops occupied Rome for protection, not Piedmont’s)
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PIEDMONT AND THE CRIMEAN WAR• Nevertheless, the Crimean War altered Austria’s position in
Europe
• It allowed for foreign nations to determine issues on Austria’s borders and proved itself militarily weak in the face of Russia
• Cavour was at the table at the Congress of Paris and now had a war tested army
• Both Cavour and Napoleon III saw a new opportunity in Europe
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THE WAR OF 1859• France seemed the best bet as a supporter to Italian Unification
• Napoleon III had already expressed himself as pushing for a more modern Europe against the old conservative version created at Vienna
• Cavour and Napoleon seemed to be on the same page- however Cavour was anti-clerical and Napoleon saw himself as the protector of the Pope
• Regardless, Cavour and Napoleon met secretly at Plombieres- alliance was made and a plan for the ensuing war with Austria
• The plan was to provoke war
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WAR OF 1859• Read the handouts- understand how the war started, its
process and its outcome
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AFTER 1860• The first phase of Unification was major success for Cavour- war,
and European interest was of vital importance to nation building
• After 1860 Cavour was set on Venetia- events in Sicily overtook him
• Once again local, class based concerns were the cause of the Sicilian revolts- Cavour stepped back, Garibaldi stepped in
• Cavour could not support the radicals led by Garibaldi, nor could you just give Garibaldi a free hand in the south…hmm…
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1860• Cavour feared Austria intervening in the south- Cavour did not interfere
when Garibaldi conquered the Kingdom of Naples in Sept. 1860
• Cavour feared Garibaldi’s position- he now only had the Papal States and their pathetic army and Rome, with France’s troops- Garibaldi was in a good position- maybe he would unite Italy
• Cavour acted- he invaded the Papal States- assuring Napoleon he was doing it to stop the radical Garibaldi
• Piedmont and Garibaldi’s army met a the northern border of Naples- a very real prospect of war
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THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY• Garibaldi made an unexpected move (either genius, desperate
or logical)
• He gave the Kingdom of Naples and the island of Sicily over to the king of Piedmont- Victor Emanuel (confirmed by plebiscite)
• The Kingdom of Italy was born
• Italia Irredenta (unredeemed Italy)- Rome and Venetia
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PROBLEMS AFTER UNIFICATION• With unification comes mundane issues- taxes,
infrastructure, constitutional questions…and the death of Cavour
• 1861 Cavour dies with no other statesmen of his ability- a series of terrible administrations existed over the next five years
• Unification brought debt- each of the states was poor to begin with and Piedmont had bankrolled its unification movement with foreign debts
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PROBLEMS AFTER UNIFICATION• Italy adopted a centralized structure- ignoring the localized nature
of Italy
• A centralized government had to harmonize language, taxes, weights and measures, currency, legal codes etc…
• This was very unpopular in the south- remember they fought for Garibaldi- a republican
• A series of civil wars erupted in the south- sapping the new country’s economy and her sense of national unity
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PROBLEMS AFTER UNIFICATION• Rome and Venetia could not be unified with in Italy with diplomacy- war
was needed
• 1864- 1866 Prussia and Austria drifted toward war- the PM of Italy, La Marmora turned to Prussia and offered support (Bismarck liked that idea)
• Prussia was victorious over Austria and in return for their support, Prussia gave Venetia to Italy
• In 1870 France recalled its troops from Rome to fight against the Prussians- Italy occupies Rome
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ITALY UNIFIED• Occupying Rome was only part of the problem- how to deal
with sensitivity toward the Pope
• Pius IX had turned against reform (remember?)- Italy agreed to give sovereignty of Vatican City and paid him a yearly allowance and allowed for the maintenance of Education throughout Italy
• (*Rome would not recognize Italy as a state until 1929)
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ITALY UNIFIED AND FULL OF PROBLEMS
• Southern resentment
• Politics dominated by Northern Italians
• Inefficient and backward economy of the south
• Industry was focused in the north
• Southern reluctance to reform in land ownership and agriculture
• Victor Emanuel II was of the house of Savoy and had taken the throne of Italy- resentment in many areas
• Loyalty to the new country ran a distance third or fourth to most Italians
• Inadequate communication and transportation
• Italia Irredenta claimed more places then just Rome and Venetia- there were a lot of Italian speaking lands left out of the union
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ITALIAN UNIFICATION: AN ASSESSMENT
• Italian Unification was an expression of Nationalism that was growing across Europe in the mid 19th century. Unification was the culmination of this growing nationalism
• Italy was ultimately accomplished as a result of the political machinations of men like Cavour, Emmanual and Garibaldi. Italian unification was a product of political agendas and rivalries
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ITALIAN UNIFICATION: AN ASSESSMENT
• Italian unification was primarily the result of long term economic and social factors including growing industrialism and trade. Middle-class elites guided unification to entrench their political and economic position
• Unification was a result of growing liberalism that has been developing in the various territories of the Italian peninsula since the early 19th century. A united Italy was one of a number of possible outcomes of this development