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THE OLYMPIC
MOVEMENT TOWARDS
GENDER EQUALITY
An Analysis of Historical, Cultural and Present Day Gender Equity of the Olympic Movement
A report compiled by: Matthew Hillebrand, Chrissy Maleske, and Zach Verch
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THE OLYMPIC MOVEMENT TOWARDS GENDER EQUALITY 2
Introduction
The following paper is an in-depth analysis of gender equity within the Olympic
Movement. The historical, cultural and present-day climate of the Movement is investigated to
determine the progress and issues regarding gender equity. Upon examination of these topics
suggestions will be provided to assist the IOC and Olympic Movement to continue progressing
and possibly achieve gender equity.
History of the Olympic Movement amongst Women
In 1896, Pierre de Coubertin created the modern Olympic movement in an attempt to
unite the world through sport. Further, he identified that excellence, friendship and respect would
be the primary values of the Movement. Today, de Coubertin’s Olympic ideology is upheld and
managed by the International Olympic Committee (IOC), which has not only affected
international relations of countries, but has affected the way in which sport is seen throughout the
world. Though even with these positive implications, the Olympic Movement has not been free
from controversy when addressing gender equality (The Olympic Museum Educational and
Cultural Services, n.d.).
Women’s Participation in the Olympic Games
Women’s involvement in the Olympics first started at the Paris Games in 1900. During
these Games, only 22 women out of a total of 997 athletes competed. Clearly, women’s
involvement in the early 1900’s was limited. However, female participation in the games has
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THE OLYMPIC MOVEMENT TOWARDS GENDER EQUALITY 3
steadily increased since Paris. To help illustrate this notion, Appendix A shows the gradual
increase of women participating in the Olympic Games, in terms of the percentage of events
devoted to women.
As shown in Appendix A, in 1904 only 3.3% of the total events were for women athletes,
whereas in 2012, almost half of the events involved women’s participation. Meanwhile, in the
2014 Sochi Winter Games, 50 percent of the events were devoted to women. Although the
improvement of female participation has been slow, it is incredible how much the gender gap of
participation has been diminished merely within this domain of the Olympic Movement. This
increase in participation suggests the IOC has been making progress in terms of achieving gender
equality when regarding athletes and the Games themselves (“Factsheet Women,” 2013).
Female Leadership in the Olympic Movement
According to the IOC, objectives have set forth to increase the percentage of women in
governing and administrative bodies of the Olympic Movement. The following quote is an
example of one objective created by the IOC:
“NOCS, IF’s, National Federations and sporting bodies belonging to the Olympic
Movement must set the objective of reserving at least 20% of decision-making positions
for women within their structures.”
While the goal stated above appears attainable, the history of the games illustrates how these
objectives are achieved at in an untimely manner or not achieved at all. For instance, women
were not allowed to become members of the IOC until 1981, which is almost 100 years after the
Olympic Movement was created. In addition, a woman was not given a predominant leadership
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THE OLYMPIC MOVEMENT TOWARDS GENDER EQUALITY 4
position until 1997, when Anita DeFrantz became Vice-President of the IOC. Today, four
women are on the IOC’s executive board (“Factsheet Women,” 2013).
It appears the IOC is passive in enforcing and achieving their objectives of gender equity.
This can further be shown through the ratio of males to females within the IOC; presently out of
the 110 members of the IOC only 24 are female. This should be increased as there appears to be
a much larger percentage of women competing in the games (“Factsheet Women,” 2013). Due to
the fact the IOC has pitfalls in achieving gender equity within its organizations, the question
becomes why should National Olympic Committees (NOCs) be timely in achieving gender
equity?
Concepts Pertaining to the Female History of the Olympic Movement
It is natural to associate senior management positions in sport with males because of the
stereotypical traits culturally associated with the male gender. However, the IOC proves to be
making major strides toward creating more management positions for women.
The IOC appears to have completed three frames of gender equity: fix the woman, value
the feminine and create equal opportunities. Coinciding with the first frame, the IOC has
changed the perception of women as athletes. They have greatly increased the number of events
in which women can participate; therefore diminishing the notion of women athletes being weak.
For the second frame, value the feminine, it is evident the IOC has completed this frame
when it opened its membership and leadership positions to women. Although, it appears the IOC
is still within the third frame of creating equal opportunity. The IOC has taken a proactive
approach in regards to this frame though its leadership development and accepting women as
influencers of the Olympic Movement. Likewise, the IOC has created conferences and several
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THE OLYMPIC MOVEMENT TOWARDS GENDER EQUALITY 5
other subcommittees to create opportunities other opportunities for women; this will be discussed
more in depth later within this paper.
When the IOC fails to follow through on their own gender equity policies, it hinders the
overall process of achieving gender equality amongst all parties within the Olympic Movement.
From feminist perspectives, liberal feminists would be pleased with the progress that is being
made in terms of leadership, but they would still advocate for equality opportunities in
administrative and leadership roles. Radical feminists would be irate at the lack of progress
being made, and would support separate divisions within the IOC, International Federations (IFs)
and NOCs to coordinate women’s sports. In addition, they would recommend the leadership of
the female sport division to be women and women only.
IOC Documents and Publications
The Olympic Charter
In 1908, de Coubertin wrote and published the first Olympic Charter. Since its creation
the document has been rewritten, changed or adapted 66 times. Since the beginning of the
Olympic Movement the social traits of religion, color and national origin were all protected from
discrimination. It was not until the end of the 20th century that the Olympic Charter included
“all” practices of discrimination. Although “all” practices of discrimination were prohibited
within the Olympic Movement, gender discrimination was still present throughout Olympic
history as previously discussed (“The Olympic Charter through Time,” n.d.)
In 2004, gender discrimination finally was specifically barred from the Olympics. Today,
gender is included in a statement known as “Principle 6”. Interestingly enough though, this
Principle has not seen any controversy from a gender standpoint, but instead has been protested
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from the gay and lesbian front. As seen by the campaign started prior to the 2014 Sochi Games,
which protested the anti-gay laws present in Russia (Purpose Foundation, 2014). Below is the
exact language of Principle 6:
“Any form of discrimination with regard to country or person on grounds of race,
religion, politics, gender or otherwise is incompatible with belonging to the Olympic
Movement” (“Olympic Charter”, 2011).
World Conference of Women and Sport Commission
The IOC recognizes the importance of a collaborative effort involving men and women to
help attain gender equality in sport. Hence, every four years the IOC hosts the World Conference
of Women and Sport Commission. The mission of the conference is to discuss and increase the
involvement of women in the Olympic Movement and Games. The conference hosts multiple
speakers and panels that inform the international sports community about the importance of
involving women. Additionally, after each conference a document is formulated, which outlines
the gender equity related goals and objective meant to be fulfilled by the IOC before the next
conference (“Women and Sport Commission,” 2013).
The Dead Sea Plan of Action
The Dead Sea Plan of Action was created by the IOC in March 2008 prior to the Beijing
Olympic Games. The document itself was not exercised at the Beijing Games due to the lack of
preparation; however the objectives were established in order to be completed following the
Games. One principal proposed was the suggestion at least one woman be on the executive
boards of every NOCs/ IF. This was a enforceable requirement, meaning that the NOC could
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receive some form of punishment for violating the principal. Examples of punishment illustrated
was the NOC or IF losing funding from the IOC or being banned from Olympic competition.
Other suggestions that the Dead Sea Plan put forward were:
Suggestions for IFs to include women on their executive boards akin to NOCs
Increase the number of women registered for the Congress of the Olympic Movement in
August 2008 in Denmark.
Promote female involvement in the Youth Olympic Games, as well as ideas of health and
well-being.
Create a network for women in the Olympic Movement.
Ask for more funding for the World Conference of Women and Sport from the IOC.
Improve perceptions of women in sports through media and create a better environment
for women journalists during the Olympics.
These suggestions, although great in theory, never were accomplished and were merely ignore
for other plans set forth by IOC. However, women have gained much in sport participation in
the Olympics, but as noted earlier women are still lacking behind in leadership, which is what the
Dead Sea Plan of Action oriented to improve. Yet, it appears the IOC and Olympic leadership
lost sight of this document.
Nevertheless, some positive implications did occur due this document. The Dead Sea
Plan of Action set the baseline of when a sport is inducted into the Olympic Games, there must
be equality in events for men and women. Under this proclamation, the Rio de Janeiro Games in
2016 will be adding Rugby and Golf to the Olympics, and there will be a medaled event for both
men and women. If the IOC continues to promote equality in this manner they will continue to
progress in obtaining gender equity (“Dead Sea,” 2008).
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The Los Angeles Declaration
In 2012, the 5th IOC World Conference on Women and Sport took place in Los Angeles in
February 2012, and again, the conglomerate of IOC leaders called for a change in women’s roles
in sport. Specifically, IOC President Jacques Rogge said, “I can pledge and I can promise that
we will do what is needed.” This is a powerful quote coming from arguably the most powerful
man in sports. The theme of the Conference was “Together Stronger: the Future of Sport.” This
powerful theme is the brainchild of some of the most powerful and brilliant men and women in
sports; it is a textbook example of the Olympic values of unity through sport. Like the Dead Sea
Action Plan, the Los Angeles Declaration outlined many points to improve gender relations in
the Olympic Games. Yet, the first point in the document states IOC desire to remain consistent
with the Dead Sea Plan from four years prior. The perceived lack of progress and willingness to
stay on the same plan as laid out four years earlier is a little shocking given the amount of
progress that is typically wanted by these conferences. Other points include:
Reviewing the mandate placing women on executive boards of the NOCs, and
establishing a better way to monitor it.
All IOC involved organizations such as NOC’s, IFs, and Organizing Committees
(OCOG), attempt to achieve more gender equity in their executive boards.
Women in sport should represent the larger struggle experienced by the female gender in
the world. Thus, the Olympic Movement should assist and promote equality in the world,
not just in sport.
The IOC should become more involved with the governments of nations and promote
women’s rights.
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THE OLYMPIC MOVEMENT TOWARDS GENDER EQUALITY 9
Reiterating support for the Youth Olympic Games as a vessel to support young women
and girls in sport and around the world.
Nevertheless, the Declaration does not give a decisive plan of action for making these goals
reality. They defer to the plans laid out in the Dead Sea Plan, which are quite ambiguous (“The
Los Angeles Declaration,” 2012).
Application of Gender Relation Principals
These documents are broad undertaking that do not fully acknowledge the necessary
actions needed to achieve gender equity within the Olympic Movement. Socialist Feminist
would proclaim the IOC’s efforts in allowing men and women to have equal control over the
participation and control of sport. Withal, they would criticism the lack of actual action and
consider the distribution of final resources, such as training, coaching and education, to be
inadequately addressed at the conferences and within the documents. The documents do not
consider the patriarchal and hegemonic masculinity present within the structure and leadership of
the IOC. Furthermore, they would argue the actions set forth by an individual organization, like
the IOC, is not enough to reconstruction the social norms and cultures of society, which oppress
women.
On the contrary of Socialist Feminist beliefs, the documents from the Women and Sport
Conference fit within the third frame of achieving gender equity, creating opportunities for
women in sport. Nonetheless, there has not been much success when regarding these documents,
thus it is apparent the IOC needs to improve their efforts in obtaining gender equity within their
patriarchal structure and expand their reach to society at large.
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Hyperandrogenism
Hyperandrogenism is when a woman is naturally producing “too much” testosterone and
is a considered a type of sexual development disorder (Boyse, 2012). Individuals diagnosed with
Hyperandrogenism are sometimes called intersex because both male and female biological traits
and/or organs are exhibited concurrently. This disorder has been an issue for the IOC in the past
few Olympic cycles, notably the issue began at the 2009 Track World Championships with the
gender testing saga of Caster Semenya, the track star from South Africa.
The IOC has a vague policy when addressing individuals classified or appearing to be a
member of the intersex known as “gender testing”. Withal, this policy is practiced exclusively
with female athletes because the testosterone hormone, in the IOC’s eyes, is seen as an unnatural
occurance within females and an unfair advantage. This policy is currently still in place and was
practiced in both the 2012 London and 2014 Sochi Games (Medical and Scientific Department of
IOC, 2012).
Testosterone and Performance Improvement with Hyperandrogensism
Testosterone has been linked to increased athletic performance for decades. According to
the Mayo Clinic findings, anabolic/androgenic steroids are just a synthetic form of testosterone
one can add to their natural levels of testosterone. The anabolic effects lead to increased athletic
performance, quicker recovery, and an easier buildup of muscle mass. Androgenic effects
include the user gaining more typically masculine characteristics, such as the voice deepening or
increased body or facial hair (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2012).
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In regards to hyperandrogenism, the IOC is concerned with women gaining a competitive
edge from overproducing testosterone compared to other women, which they view as an unfair
competitive advantage, akin to PED’s.
Estrogen, the primary hormone associated with women, has little effects on athletic
performance. According to a study done in 2011 regarding the menstrual cycle, which causes
estrogen levels to naturally vary during the month and coming to a peak during ovulation, there
is no change on athletic performance in women (Reynolds, 2011). Therefore, varying levels of
estrogen in males likely will not change the level of athletic performance, so they typically are
not subjected to gender testing because of naturally occurring phenomena like women are.
Notwithstanding, estrogen is connected to increased bone mass and strength in females.
Though studies have not researched the effects of estrogen on male bones, hence there is a
possibility that estrogen may not give male athletes a competitive advantage when in
competition, but instead can decrease the likelihood of bone injury when training (Schiessl,
Frost, & Jee, 1998).
Additionally, even though there is evidence and research dictating that estrogen does not
increase athletic performance in males, there is the possibility the hormone could hinder it. For
example, there is a debate in research addressing how increased female hormones can increase
the likelihood of injury. Besides injury, estrogen can affect the cardiovascular system of athletes
by increasing the chance of blood clotting. Lastly, estrogen can cause higher blood sugar levels,
increased blood pressure level and weight gain (Womack, n.d.). Research has shown many of
these conditions to be present in males with high estrogen.
Yet, the IOC is more concerned with women having too high of levels of testosterone
competing with other women. The IOC has protocol laid out for only female gender testing. The
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THE OLYMPIC MOVEMENT TOWARDS GENDER EQUALITY 12
testing itself is flawed because there is no defining value of testosterone that qualifies one as a
male or a female. The lack of definition leaves too much to guesswork, and leaves the final
decision of whether the athlete is a male or female to the Chief Medical Officer of the IOC. This
ambiguity does not help the case of women in the Olympics and marginalizes the efforts made
by these extremely athletic women (Medical and Scientific Department of IOC, 2012).
Meanwhile, the IOC does not address or take into consideration male athletes, who are
possibly intersex and are hindered by their disorder. It is apparent the IOC is quick to judge
females athletes and determine if they are male or females. However, when addressing male
athletes the IOC has no desire and is unwilling to pass judgment on men who could actually be
women.
The Case of Caster Semenya
In the case of Semenya, she was born with a sexual development disorder. She outwardly
looks like a woman, yet she does not have ovaries or a uterus. Instead she has a pair of internal
testes, which are responsible for her elevated testosterone levels. According to data, this affects
one in every 130,000 births (Daum, 2009).
Semenya’s condition has increased the awareness of the intersex, as it reached a critical
point at the 2012 London Games. As described in Daum’s 2009 article, Semenya went to great
lengths to disguise her intersex classification by conveying highly feminine qualities. This
portray of femininity coincides with the concept of the Apologetic female. For example, after
receiving great criticism for being intersex, Semenya participated in a feature of You Magazine
in which she received a makeover. Within the feature, she expressed her happiness with
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receiving the makeover and her desire to accentuate her female body: “Now that I know what I
can look like, I’d like to dress up more often.”
Semenya has taken the criticism well and has accepted being intersex. Notwithstanding,
some intersex athletes have not been able to handle the criticism around them. For instance, an
Indian runner received a medal in 2006 was stripped of her title for being intersex; following this
the runner attempted suicide (Daum, 2009).
Recreations to Intersex
As formerly stated, hyperandrogenism is a naturally occurring phenomenon and has made
women out to be in the wrong, when in fact men can suffer from the same condition. The IOC
only has a protocol in place to test women on hyperandrogenism and does not recognize the
possibility of males having this sexual development disorder. This is unjust and women should
seek for equality in the practice of medical protocol, or seek to abolish it.
Men and women should be tested and the differences should be scientifically defined, not
be judged by the Chief Medical Officer. The ambiguity of this so called “gender testing” does
not allow decisions to be clear. Intersex is a distinct gray area, people within this domain do exist
and are beginning to compete at high athletic level, including the Olympics. Additionally, Daum
proclaimed a point supporting gender testing:
“It was exciting to see the powerful Semenya win a race by a wide margin. But to learn
that this woman won - for lack of a better way of putting it - because she competed at
least partly on male terms sours the whole experience.”
This idea continues to project hegemonic masculinity into the Olympics; people who do
not fit into preconceived gender roles are marginalized and criticized. In essence gender testing
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is a witch hunt for unique biological deviations within women only. Moreover, it is biological
stereotyping; women can be men, but men cannot be women. Although, one positive implication
of recognizing female intersex is it allows females to compete against men. Concurrently though,
male intersex may not get the chance to compete at all. Overall, female hyperandrogenism and
gender testing is another way illustration of the power of hegemonic masculinity and establishes
the Olympic movement as a patriarchal system.
Cultural Implications on the Olympic Games and Women Athletes
Olympic Games are a cultural haven; every two years the world focuses on the greatest
athletes in the world and proudly displays elements of nationalism for just about weeks.
Nonetheless, the games can sometimes be overshadowed by cultural stigmas and larger social
issues pertaining to several or specific countries participating in the games. For example, a few
nations have widespread issues pertaining to women’s rights. Furthermore, Saudi Arabia, Qatar
and Brunei were the last three countries to send women participants to the Olympics; the 2012
London Games was the first time all participating countries sent women athletes.
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia is recognized as a country lacking women’s rights and hosting a
government suppressing the rights of its female population. Specifically, women are barred from
traveling, conducting business or receiving medical procedures without their male “guardian”.
An example of this occurred in July of 2012, a woman was hospitalized after a car crash and
needed her hand amputated. The hospital and doctors postponed the amputation due to the lack
of present of a male guardian (Human Rights Watch, 2012).
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Due to stories like the one described above, it is no surprise that Saudi Arabia did not
allow any women to participate or represent their country at the Olympics until 2012. In fact, the
only reason they sent women was because of the IOC’s threat to ban the country from
participation (Meltzer, 2012). Saudi Arabia only sent two women, and one of them was an
American citizen, Sarah Attar. She completed as an Arabian athlete, and finished 43 seconds
behind the first place finisher of her heat, Kenya’s Janeth Jepkosgei Busienei (Palmer, 2012).
The other competitor was a judoist named Wojdan Ali Seraj Abdulrahim Shahrkhani. In
just a minute, she was defeated by her Puerto Rican Opponent. Shahrkhani’s match was not
televised in Saudi Arabia and state-owned television stations decided to focus on other
competitions or crises. The IOC prohibited her from covering her face, thus she wore tight fitting
black cap. Many Islamic and individuals were upset her participation saying it violated Muslim
tradition. One preacher chastised Shahrkani’s participation and said, “Wojdan is a martyr of
Westernization and liberalism.” (Batrawy, 2012)
Other Implications to Consider
The culture in many nations does not promote equal treatment of women, or even all
races. On theguardian website, there is an interactive tool that lets the user find out a
tremendous amount of information regarding women’s rights and equality. This tool identifies
nations located in the Middle East, Africa and Oceania as regions most lacking in women’s
rights.
Around the world women are marginalized, do not have proper rights and are treated as
second class citizens. According to the United Nations Development Programme six out of ten of
the poorest people are women. Specifically, these women are the primary caregivers of their
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THE OLYMPIC MOVEMENT TOWARDS GENDER EQUALITY 16
families and they basically work to keep their families alive. Additionally, 75 percent of women
globally cannot receive bank loans due to the fact they are unpaid, do not have jobs and do not
own property. Furthermore, it is a well-known fact the world’s population comprises of more
than 50 percent of females. Withal, it is not well-known that women only own one percent of the
world’s wealth. For more information women globally, refer to Appendix B and C.
With these statistics in mind it is clear there are more issues to consider besides the fact
women around the world do not receive the opportunity to participate in sport. The IOC does not
recognize the individual factors that affect women’s participation within in each country.
Further, many NOCs do not have the funding to assist women out of poverty to participate in
sport, or the NOCs are funded by their nation’s government and thus cannot advocate for
women.
Overall, critical theorist would say the economic, educational and rights hindering
women from sport participation is being reproduced continuously by the governments and NOCs
of each nation. In addition, conflict theory would suggest due to the cultural norms of viewing
women as second class citizens, economically women can be privileged to participate in sports.
In order to diminish their implications, the interactionist theorists would suggest that the IOC
socially interacts and assists in tackling issues of poverty, education and overall women’s rights
to increase sport participation within each country.
Suggestions and Conclusion
This paper provided an in-depth look into the gender equity issues found within the
Olympic Movement. Specifically, the history of participation and leadership within the IOC was
addressed, as well as its present day status. Consecutively, the relatively new issue of
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hyperandrogenism was discussed and the implications the new IOC protocol has on male, female
and intersex athletes. Lastly, culture was examined as a factor prohibiting the enforcement of the
ideals of the Olympic Movement. It was expressed and identified that there are several other
elements affecting a country and its NOC when attempting to achieve gender equity in sport.
Based off the research conducted, the following suggestions were devised with the belief
that they will assist the IOC and the Olympic Movement progress toward achieving gender
equity.
1. IOC leadership and membership should be proportional to male and female
participants of the Olympic Games.
2. IOC needs to fulfill goals from their Women and Sport Conference
declarations/documents.
3. IOC needs to be sensitive to cultures within each member country and create
goals that are realistic to accomplish for each NOC.
4. A disciplinary action plan should be established for violations of Principle 6 and
gender equity.
5. IOC should remove gender testing overall and be aware the occurrence of intersex
can be natural.
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THE OLYMPIC MOVEMENT TOWARDS GENDER EQUALITY 18
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THE OLYMPIC MOVEMENT TOWARDS GENDER EQUALITY 21
Appendices
Appendix A: Women’s Participation in the Olympic Games- % of event
International Olympic Committee. (2013). Table C: Women’s Participation in the Olympic
Games- % of events. Switzerland.
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Appendix B
Percent of Female of Employers World Wide
World Bank. (n.d). Featured Indicators: Employers, female (% of employment).
http://datatopics.worldbank.org/Gender/topic/economic-structure
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THE OLYMPIC MOVEMENT TOWARDS GENDER EQUALITY 23
Appendix C
2011 Life Expectancy of Women at the Age of 60 via Years
World Bank. (n.d). 2011- Life Expectancy at age 60, female (years).