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The Nata Goulandris Lecture
Learning to spell in English Rebecca Treiman Washington University in St. Louis, USA
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Collaborators
Derrick Bourassa
Maggie Bruck
Marie Cassar
Jeremy Cohen
Brett Kessler
Louisa Moats
Kevin Mulqueeny
Tatiana Pollo
Suzanne Schechtman
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Outside in approach
Look at dyslexics’ performance on tasks outside of reading and spelling
Identify the tasks on which people with dyslexia have difficulty, with the goal of shedding light on the causes of the dyslexics’ reading and spelling problems
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Inside out approach
Look inside reading and spelling by examining the nature of the tasks themselves
Determine whether people with dyslexia have more serious problems with some aspects of reading and spelling than with others, with the goal of shedding light on the causes of dyslexics’ problems
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Inside out approach for spelling
Plan of talk
What knowledge do skilled spellers possess?
How do typically developing children acquire this knowledge?
Do dyslexics have more serious problems with some aspects of spelling than with others?
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What knowledge do skilled spellers possess?
Lexicon of spellings
Cat stored for /kæt/, green stored for /grin/
Not rote but motivated
Formal motivations: cat and green are graphically possible in English, as are dat and greep; ckat and grren are graphically odd
Functional motivations: the c of cat functions to represent the /k/
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People use formal and functional motivations developed for familiar words to fill in missing information about less familiar words and to spell new words
Blandine vs. Blandeen
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How do typically developing children acquire this knowledge?
Learning to spell involves building a lexicon, moving from a small number of poorly motivated entries to a large number of well motivated ones
Most children in literate societies begin to learn about the formal properties of lexical entries at an early age
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Early knowledge of formal properties of writing
SAM vs. S
A
M
BEP vs. 申欠乒
pppp vs. palg
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Children’s early ideas about function of writing
Young children often don’t understand that each piece of writing represents a specific linguistic unit
“don’t cross the street”
“don’t go”
“Easter bunny” “rabbit”
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mosquito vs. whale
Children who don’t understand that spellings stand for specific linguistic units can’t begin to develop a spelling lexicon in which the entries are functionally motivated
These children can begin learning about the formal properties of writing
chet for will
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Building a spelling lexicon
First entry is often child’s first name
Good knowledge of form: Brendan and Prendan
Poor knowledge of function: Valentina and Valentino
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Functional motivations
r of car
l of help
U.S. children’s spellings that reflect use of letter names
lfut
frm
yat
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Segmentation
Children use whole letter names to avoid segmentation of spoken words into phonemes
Other spelling errors that reflect difficulties with segmentation
pa
mikeowave
rad
lfut
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Classification
gres, jrs
sbitr
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Phonemes with more than one possible spelling
Is /au/ spelled as ou (as in out) or ow (as in now)?
Ends of words
Before /l/ and /n/
Before other consonants
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Phonemes with more than one possible spelling (cont.)
Why is vowel of health spelled as ea?
Why is third consonant of musician c?
Why is first vowel of majority a?
Morphemes tend to be spelled in a consistent way in English
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Interim summary: Tasks for typically developing spellers
Learning about the formal properties of writing
Learning that writing represents language
Segmenting language into phonemes
Classifying phonemes in way assumed by conventional writing system
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Tasks for typically developing spellers (cont.)
Learning about how such factors as phonological context and morphology can help in choosing among alternative spellings for phonemes
Developing a lexicon of well-motivated spellings
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Spelling in children with dyslexia
Outside in approach
Inside out approach using spelling level match design
Have the dyslexics achieved this level of performance
by using a different mixture of skills and abilities?
If so, should see different kinds of errors and different patterns of performance, potentially shedding light on causes of dyslexics’ problems
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Ideas about dyslexics’ spelling
More difficulty relative to typical younger children in acquiring functional motivations than formal motivations for entries in spelling lexicon?
Within the category of functional motivations, special difficulty with spellings that are conditioned by morphology?
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1. Bourassa and Treiman, 2003
30 children with dyslexia
mean age 11 years, 1 month
mean spelling grade level 2.5
30 typical younger children
mean age 7 years, 5 months
mean spelling grade level 2.4
Written and oral spelling of words and nonwords
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Correctness of phonological skeleton
Correct : drep and grip for drip
Incorrect: duripe and dimp for drip
Reflects knowledge of functional (phonological) motivations of spellings
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Proportion of spellings with correct phonological skeleton
Group Words Nonwords
Written Oral Written Oral
Dyslexic .76 .68 .74 .65
Typical .78 .70 .74 .65
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Graphic acceptability
Acceptable: tambo for tomato
Not acceptable: klmal for clean
Reflects knowledge of formal motivations of spellings
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Proportion of spellings that are graphically acceptable
Group Words Nonwords
Written Oral Written Oral
Dyslexic .92 .90 .86 .87
Typical .87 .89 .83 .84
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Errors that occur at similar rates in dyslexic and typical children
Spellings based on letter names
jr for jar
Spellings that reflect segmentation problems
tip for trip
Spellings that reflect classification problems
grip for drip
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Conclusions from Bourassa and Treiman, 2003
No evidence that children with dyslexia emphasize formal motivations more and functional motivations less when developing their spelling lexicons
Errors of children with dyslexia are quite similar to those of typical beginners
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2. Cassar, Treiman, Moats, Pollo, and Kessler, 2005
25 children with dyslexia
mean age 11 years, 7 months
mean spelling grade level 2.2
25 typical younger children
mean age 6 years, 8 months
mean spelling grade level 2.1
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Cassar et al. results
No significant differences between older dyslexics and younger typical children in correctness of phonological skeleton, or in other measures of phonological acceptability
No significant differences between older dyslexics and younger typical children in graphic acceptability of spellings, or in other measures of graphic knowledge
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Can teachers distinguish spellings of older dyslexic children from those of typical younger children?
and and and
arm run rueme
boy boy boy
bump boum bump
cart krke crte
circle crkl srcle
city situe sity
cook coke cuke
correct kract crent
cut cut cute
dime dime dime
dress drase drese
enter ntre entr
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Group Prop. correct
Confidence rating (1-5)
All participants (N = 44) .49 3.36
Participants with most teaching experience with children with serious reading and spelling problems (N = 10)
.51 3.55
Participants with teaching experience with both normally progressing young children and dyslexics (N = 10)
.50 3.39
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Teachers’ comments
“The more of these I did, the less confident I became.”
“I worked on this for a period of time … all except two samples could be either a young typical child or an older dyslexic student. … I did not fill out the other forms as I could not classify these students as either typical or dyslexic.”
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Ideas about spelling in children with dyslexia
More difficulty relative to typical younger children in acquiring functional motivations than formal motivations for entries in spelling lexicon?
Within the category of functional motivations, special difficulty with spellings that are conditioned by morphology?
NO
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3. Bourassa, Treiman, and Kessler, 2006
25 children with dyslexia
mean age 11 years, 5 months
mean spelling grade level 2.6
25 typical younger children
mean age 7 years, 8 months
mean spelling grade level 2.6
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Morphologically complex words with final clusters, stem can help children spell the first consonant of the cluster
tuned, bars
Morphologically simple words with final clusters, no stem that could help children spell the first consonant of the cluster
brand, Mars
Children who use morphology to aid spelling should produce more spellings that represent both phonemes of the cluster for morphologically complex words than for simple words
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Proportion of spellings that represent both consonants of
cluster Group Morphologically
complex (e.g., tuned)
Morphologically simple (e.g., brand)
Dyslexic .88 .82
Typical .85 .77
Both groups use morphology to aid their spelling
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4. Bourassa and Treiman, in preparation
32 children with dyslexia
mean age 15 years, 0 months
mean spelling grade level 4.7
32 typical younger children
mean age 9 years, 9 months
mean spelling grade level 4.8
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Morphologically complex words where spelling of stem is retained
musician (cf. music), critical segment is c
Morphologically complex words where spelling of stem is not retained
pronunciation (cf. pronounce), critical segment is ou
If dyslexics have special difficulty with morphological basis of English spelling, should use critical segment less often than typical children when spelling words like musician and pronunciation
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Proportion of spellings that use critical segment
Group Complex words where spelling of stem is retained (e.g., musician)
Complex words where spelling of stem is not retained (e.g., pronunciation)
Dyslexic .58 .29
Typical .54 .32
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Dyslexics use morphology in spelling to the same extent as typically developing younger children of the same spelling level
Leads to correct spellings in many cases:
musician
Leads to errors in some cases:
pronounciation
No evidence that children with dyslexia have special difficulty relative to typical children in grasping the morphological function of English spelling
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Ideas about spelling in children with dyslexia
More difficulty relative to typical children in acquiring functional motivations than formal motivations for entries in spelling lexicon?
Within the category of functional motivations, special difficulty with spellings that are conditioned by morphology?
NO
NO
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Our conclusions about spelling in children with dyslexia
Children with dyslexia learn to spell in much the same way as typical children, but more slowly
Slower learning of all aspects of spelling that we have examined
Same kinds of errors, generally at same rates
No evidence that dyslexic children are relatively good at some aspects of spelling and extremely poor at others
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Inconsistencies across studies
Bruck and Treiman, 1990: Dyslexics significantly more likely than typical younger children of the same spelling level to omit second consonants of initial clusters
pa for play
Bourassa and Treiman, 2003; Cassar et al., 2005: Dyslexics not significantly more likely than younger typical children to make such errors
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Consistencies across studies
No study has found dyslexics to make types of spelling errors that typical beginners do not make
Many published studies, as well as some unpublished ones, have found remarkable similarities between older children with dyslexia and typically developing younger children in error rates and patterns of performance
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Discouraging aspects of these findings
Different spelling errors or different patterns of performance could have shed light on why dyslexic children are so slow
Encouraging aspects of these findings
What we have learned about spelling in typical children can be applied to children with dyslexia
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Teaching
Need for teachers to appreciate logic behind English writing system and logic behind children’s errors
Trouble spots in learning to spell are much the same for all children, but some children need more intensive instruction in order to overcome them
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Thank you!
More information our research at: http://artsci.wustl.edu/~rtreiman/
Email: [email protected]
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Testing knowledge of effects of phonological context
/zaul/
/zauch/
How often do people spell /au/ with ow?
If people more often use ow in /zaul/ than/zauch/, this would suggest that they use context in selecting spellings
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Proportion of spellings with various characteristics in Cassar et al. 2005
Group Correct phonological skeleton
Graphically acceptable
Dyslexic .69 .85
Typical .62 .79