The Influence of Motivation on Human The Influence of Motivation on Human Categorization and Decision MakingCategorization and Decision Making
W. Todd Maddox and Arthur B. MarkmanW. Todd Maddox and Arthur B. MarkmanUniversity of TexasUniversity of Texas
Presented at the Gazzaniga Summer Institute in Cognitive Neuroscience, UCSB, July 4, 2007
Setting the StageSetting the Stage All human behavior is motivatedAll human behavior is motivated Motivation influences behaviorMotivation influences behavior
Approach positive states and avoid Approach positive states and avoid negative states.negative states.
Cognition influences behaviorCognition influences behavior Motivation and Cognition need to be Motivation and Cognition need to be
studied togetherstudied together Until recently studied in different Until recently studied in different
branches of Psychologybranches of Psychology
Overview of TalkOverview of Talk Why we should care about motivationWhy we should care about motivation A framework for thinking about A framework for thinking about
motivation and its influence on motivation and its influence on cognition and learningcognition and learning
Application to:Application to: Perceptual classification learningPerceptual classification learning Stereotype threatStereotype threat Choking/PressureChoking/Pressure ChoiceChoice Signal DetectionSignal Detection
Why we should careWhy we should care Motivation affects decision making Motivation affects decision making
Preferences (Brendl, Markman, & Messner; Ferguson & Bargh)Preferences (Brendl, Markman, & Messner; Ferguson & Bargh) Need to smoke increases preference for smoking related items and Need to smoke increases preference for smoking related items and
reduces preference for not smoking related items reduces preference for not smoking related items Goal-adoption (Aarts et al, Fishbach & Shah)Goal-adoption (Aarts et al, Fishbach & Shah)
People adopt goals of people around them. People adopt goals of people around them. Selection of optimal behavior (Bechara et al., Busemeyer & Selection of optimal behavior (Bechara et al., Busemeyer &
Townsend)Townsend)
All cognitive research has an (uncontrolled) motivational All cognitive research has an (uncontrolled) motivational componentcomponent ““motivate” to “try harder”motivate” to “try harder”
““Motivation” brain regions reciprocally connected with Motivation” brain regions reciprocally connected with “cognitive” brain regions“cognitive” brain regions
Motivational FrameworkMotivational FrameworkRegulatory Fit Regulatory Fit
Extends concept developed by Extends concept developed by HigginsHiggins
HypothesisHypothesis: When there is a “fit” : When there is a “fit” between the regulatory focus between the regulatory focus (global task goal) and task reward (global task goal) and task reward structure (local task goal) more structure (local task goal) more flexible cognitive processing flexible cognitive processing (exploration) results.(exploration) results.
Regulatory Fit = Flexibility: Regulatory Fit = Flexibility: Why?Why?
Empirical support in several Empirical support in several domainsdomains
Connection to NeuroscienceConnection to Neuroscience Positive affect-frontal dopamine-Positive affect-frontal dopamine-
flexibility hypothesis (Isen, Ashby, flexibility hypothesis (Isen, Ashby, etc)etc)
Regulatory focus-frontal activation Regulatory focus-frontal activation findings (Amodio, Cunningham, etc)findings (Amodio, Cunningham, etc)
LC-NE-exploration/exploitation LC-NE-exploration/exploitation relation (Ashton-Jones, Cohen, Daw)relation (Ashton-Jones, Cohen, Daw)
Regulatory FocusRegulatory Focus(Global Task Goal)(Global Task Goal)
Promotion Promotion Focus Focus (Approach)(Approach)
Achieve Global Task Achieve Global Task Performance Criterion Performance Criterion Raffle ticket for $50Raffle ticket for $50
Prevention Prevention Focus Focus (Avoidance)(Avoidance)
Achieve Global Task Achieve Global Task Performance Criterion Performance Criterion Keep $50 raffle ticket given Keep $50 raffle ticket given initiallyinitially
Task Reward StructureTask Reward Structure(Local Trial-by-trial Task (Local Trial-by-trial Task
Goal)Goal)
GainsGains Correct Response = 3 pointsCorrect Response = 3 pointsIncorrect Response = 1 pointIncorrect Response = 1 point
LossesLosses Correct Response = -1 pointCorrect Response = -1 pointIncorrect Response = -3 pointIncorrect Response = -3 point
Consider the bigger Consider the bigger picturepicture
Reward Structure of Task
Gains LossesPromotion Focus Fit MismatchPrevention Focus Mismatch Fit
Consider the bigger Consider the bigger picturepicture
Almost all cognitive research involves a Almost all cognitive research involves a promotion focus and a gains reward structurepromotion focus and a gains reward structure Promotion focusPromotion focus: small monetary reward or social : small monetary reward or social
contract with experimenter.contract with experimenter. Gains: reward for correct response, no reward for Gains: reward for correct response, no reward for
errorerror
Reward Structure of Task
Gains LossesPromotion Focus Fit MismatchPrevention Focus Mismatch Fit
Fit
Regulatory Fit vs. Loss Regulatory Fit vs. Loss AversionAversion
Fit differs from loss-aversionFit differs from loss-aversion Loss aversion is a main effect. Loss aversion is a main effect.
““Losses loom larger than gains.”Losses loom larger than gains.” Regulatory fit is an interactionRegulatory fit is an interaction
The influence of losses depends on regulatory The influence of losses depends on regulatory focusfocus
Losses lead to Losses lead to flexibleflexible behavior under prevention behavior under prevention Losses lead to Losses lead to inflexibleinflexible behavior under behavior under
promotion promotion Whether this leads to good or bad overall Whether this leads to good or bad overall
performance depends on whether the task calls performance depends on whether the task calls for flexibilityfor flexibility
Studying Regulatory Fit Studying Regulatory Fit EffectsEffects
How can we study this systematically?How can we study this systematically? Need task for which we can manipulate Need task for which we can manipulate
the advantageousness of flexibility, while the advantageousness of flexibility, while holding other task characteristics fixedholding other task characteristics fixed
Need a good manipulation of regulatory Need a good manipulation of regulatory focusfocus
Need to be able to manipulate reward Need to be able to manipulate reward structurestructure
ApplicatioApplication 1:n 1:
Perceptual Perceptual ClassificatiClassificati
ononMaddox, Baldwin & Markman (2006; Memory Maddox, Baldwin & Markman (2006; Memory & Cognition)& Cognition)
Perceptual Perceptual Classification TaskClassification Task
Stimuli with small number of Stimuli with small number of underlying dimensionsunderlying dimensions Lines that vary in length, orientation and Lines that vary in length, orientation and
positionposition Experimenter control of category Experimenter control of category
structurestructure Extensive set of tools for modeling Extensive set of tools for modeling
performance of individual participantsperformance of individual participants Can assess the strategies participants use Can assess the strategies participants use
in the taskin the task
0
18
YesBonus
No
0
18
Correct
21
YesBonus
No
0
21
YesBonus
No
0
22
YesBonus
No
Wrong, that was an A
Experiment Set 1Experiment Set 1Flexibility is AdvantageousFlexibility is Advantageous
Gains Losses
Promotion (try to earn ticket) Fit: Good Mismatch :
PoorPrevention (try
not to lose ticket)
Mismatch: Poor Fit: Good
Conjunctive Rule-Based TaskConjunctive Rule-Based Task Exploration of verbal rule space requiredExploration of verbal rule space required
Scatterplot of StimuliScatterplot of Stimuli
o = category A = long, steep lineso = category A = long, steep lines+ = category B = all others+ = category B = all others
Possible Rule-based Possible Rule-based StrategiesStrategies
83% accuracy100% accuracy
Motivation Motivation ManipulationsManipulations
Regulatory FocusRegulatory Focus Promotion: Promotion: Entry into a cash Entry into a cash
drawing if performance criterion drawing if performance criterion (86%) exceeded.(86%) exceeded.
Prevention: Prevention: Drawing entry at start, Drawing entry at start, must exceed performance criterion must exceed performance criterion (86%) to keep entry.(86%) to keep entry.
Reward StructureReward Structure Gains conditionGains condition: Gains on each trial: Gains on each trial Loss conditionLoss condition: Losses on each trial: Losses on each trial
Experiment Screen Experiment Screen SampleSample
Gains
Losses
PredictionPrediction
Exceeding bonus requires Exceeding bonus requires exploration to find conjunctive exploration to find conjunctive strategystrategy
If a regulatory fit leads to increased If a regulatory fit leads to increased flexible cognitive processing flexible cognitive processing (exploration of the verbal rule (exploration of the verbal rule space), space),
Then performance should be best Then performance should be best when there is a regulatory fitwhen there is a regulatory fit
Performance ResultsPerformance Results
0.7
0.75
0.8
0.85
0.9
0.95
1
Gains Losses
Reward Structure
Prop
ortio
n Co
rrec
t
PromotionPrevention
Plots averaged over blocks. Effects generally larger early in learning
Model-based AnalysesModel-based Analyses Decision-bound models (Ashby & Decision-bound models (Ashby &
Maddox) fit to each participant Maddox) fit to each participant block-by-blockblock-by-block
Possible Rule-based Possible Rule-based StrategiesStrategies
83% accuracy100% accuracy
Model Fit PredictionsModel Fit Predictions Regulatory Fit Conditions should be more Regulatory Fit Conditions should be more
“flexible” and find the more complex “flexible” and find the more complex conjunctive rule faster than the conjunctive rule faster than the Regulatory Mismatch ConditionsRegulatory Mismatch Conditions
Modeling ResultsModeling Results
00.1
0.20.3
0.40.50.6
0.70.8
0.91
Gains Losses
Reward Structure
Prop
ortio
n C
onju
nctiv
e R
ule Promotion
Prevention
Prop
ortio
n C
onju
nctiv
e R
ule
Use
ConclusionsConclusions
In a classification task where exploration of the verbal rule space is advantageous, a regulatory fit led to better performance.
Experiment Set 2Experiment Set 2Flexibility is Flexibility is
DisadvantageousDisadvantageous
Gains Losses
Promotion (try to earn ticket) Fit: Poor Mismatch :
GoodPrevention (try
not to lose ticket)
Mismatch: Good Fit: Poor
Information-Integration TaskInformation-Integration Task
Experimental Method identical to Experiment Set 1
PredictionPrediction If regulatory fit = more flexibility,
then rule-based strategies should persist leading to poorer performance
COVIS assumes that rule-based strategies dominate early..
Rule-based strategies must be abandoned in information-integration tasks
Exceeding the bonus requires abandoning rule-based strategies
Performance ResultsPerformance Results
0.7
0.75
0.8
0.85
Gains Losses
Reward Structure
Prop
ortio
n Co
rrec
t
PromotionPrevention
Modeling ResultsModeling Results
00.1
0.20.3
0.40.50.6
0.70.8
0.91
Gains Losses
Reward Structure
Prop
ortio
n II
Use
PromotionPrevention
Prop
ortio
n II
Use
ConclusionsConclusions
We observe a 3-way interaction between regulatory focus, task reward structure, and nature of the task.
Flexibility advantageous: Fit is good
Flexibility disadvantageous: Fit is bad
ApplicatioApplication 2:n 2:
Stereotype Stereotype ThreatThreat
Grimm, Markman, Maddox & Baldwin (under Grimm, Markman, Maddox & Baldwin (under review)review)
Stereotype ThreatStereotype Threat Stereotype threat is the risk of Stereotype threat is the risk of
confirming a negative stereotype confirming a negative stereotype about one’s group (Steele & Aronson, about one’s group (Steele & Aronson, 1995). 1995).
Task-relevant stereotype causes task-Task-relevant stereotype causes task-specific decrements in performancespecific decrements in performance How?How?
Proposed stereotype threat Proposed stereotype threat mechanismsmechanisms
Self-handicapping (Stone et al., 1999; Brown & Josephs, Self-handicapping (Stone et al., 1999; Brown & Josephs, 1999)1999) Blacks better when framed as diagnostic of “natural athletic Blacks better when framed as diagnostic of “natural athletic
ability”ability” Whites better when framed as diagnostic of “sports intelligence”Whites better when framed as diagnostic of “sports intelligence”
Low performance confidence (Cadinu et al., 2003)Low performance confidence (Cadinu et al., 2003) Lower expected level of performance, lower actual performanceLower expected level of performance, lower actual performance
Task-specific concerns (Brown & Josephs, 1999)Task-specific concerns (Brown & Josephs, 1999) Ideomotor priming (Bargh et al., 1996)Ideomotor priming (Bargh et al., 1996)
People primed with elderly stereotype by unscrambling sentences People primed with elderly stereotype by unscrambling sentences relevant to stereotype. Those primed walked more slowly down hallrelevant to stereotype. Those primed walked more slowly down hall
Arousal (O’Brien & Crandall, 2003)Arousal (O’Brien & Crandall, 2003) Reduced working memory load (Beilock et al., 2007)Reduced working memory load (Beilock et al., 2007) Regulatory focus (Seibt & Förster, 2004)Regulatory focus (Seibt & Förster, 2004)
Connecting Stereotype Connecting Stereotype Threat and Regulatory FitThreat and Regulatory Fit
Seibt and Förster (2004)Seibt and Förster (2004) Positive stereotype induces promotion; Positive stereotype induces promotion;
negative stereotype induces preventionnegative stereotype induces prevention Promotion induces more elaborative Promotion induces more elaborative
processing while prevention induces more processing while prevention induces more vigilant processingvigilant processing
Others…Others…
FrameworkFrameworkGainsGains LossesLosses
Positive Positive stereotype stereotype (“Promotion”)(“Promotion”)
FitFit MismatchMismatch
Negative Negative Stereotype Stereotype (“Prevention”)(“Prevention”)
MismatchMismatch FitFit
Regulatory fit allow for more flexible cognitive processing
Stereotype Threat Stereotype “Threat”?
Flexibility PredictionsFlexibility PredictionsGainsGains LossesLosses
Positive Positive stereotype stereotype (“Promotion”)(“Promotion”)
BetterBetter WorseWorse
Negative Negative Stereotype Stereotype (“Prevention”)(“Prevention”)
WorseWorse BetterBetter
GainsGains LossesLossesPositive Positive stereotype stereotype (“Promotion”(“Promotion”))
WorseWorse BetterBetter
Negative Negative Stereotype Stereotype (“Prevention(“Prevention”)”)
BetterBetter WorseWorse
Flexibility advantageous (rule-based)
Flexibility disadvantageous (information-integration)
Experiments 1 and 2: Experiments 1 and 2: Flexibility AdvantageousFlexibility Advantageous
Experiment StructureExperiment StructureGainsGains LossesLosses
ExperimeExperiment 1nt 1
Positive Positive stereotypstereotyp
eeWomenWomen FitFit MismatcMismatc
hh
Negative Negative StereotypStereotyp
eeMenMen MismatcMismatc
hh FitFit
ExperimeExperiment 2nt 2
Positive Positive stereotypstereotyp
eeMenMen FitFit MismatcMismatc
hh
Negative Negative StereotypStereotyp
eeWomenWomen MismatcMismatc
hh FitFit
Stereotype Prime Example: Stereotype Prime Example: Women are better in gains Women are better in gains
tasktaskThis is an experiment testing sex differences in spatial This is an experiment testing sex differences in spatial abilities. Previous research has shown that women abilities. Previous research has shown that women perform better than men on tests of spatial ability.perform better than men on tests of spatial ability.
In this experiment, you will earn some points for In this experiment, you will earn some points for correct responses and no points for incorrect correct responses and no points for incorrect responses. In this task, women tend to earn more than responses. In this task, women tend to earn more than 86 points per block of trials and men tend to earn 86 points per block of trials and men tend to earn fewer than 86 points per block of trials. fewer than 86 points per block of trials.
Please try your best in this task. Before continuing, Please try your best in this task. Before continuing, please indicate whether you are male or female. If you please indicate whether you are male or female. If you are male, press the "M" key. If you are female, press are male, press the "M" key. If you are female, press the "F" key.the "F" key.
Task AccuracyTask Accuracy
0.7
0.75
0.8
0.85
0.9
0.95
1
Gains Losses
Reward Structure
Prop
ortio
n C
orre
ct
WomenMen
Experiment 1: Women Positive Stereotype
Experiment 2: Men Positive Stereotype
0.7
0.75
0.8
0.85
0.9
0.95
1
Gains Losses
Reward Structure
Prop
ortio
n C
orre
ctWomenMen
Prop
ortio
n C
orre
ct
Prop
ortio
n C
orre
ct
Model ResultsModel Results
00.10.20.30.40.50.60.70.80.9
1
Gains Losses
Reward Structure
Prop
ortio
n C
J U
se
WomenMen
Experiment 1: Women Positive Stereotype
Experiment 2: Men Positive Stereotype 0
0.10.20.30.40.50.60.70.80.9
1
Gains Losses
Reward Structure
Prop
ortio
n C
J U
seWomenMen
Prop
ortio
n C
J Use
Prop
ortio
n C
J Use
ConclusionsConclusions
Stereotype threat manipulations led to behavior also observed under a prevention focus. When flexible strategy use is advantageous:
a negative stereotype is disadvantageous in a gains condition. a negative stereotype is ADVANTAGEOUS in a losses condition.
Flexibility PredictionsFlexibility PredictionsGainsGains LossesLosses
Positive Positive stereotype stereotype (“Promotion”)(“Promotion”)
BetterBetter WorseWorse
Negative Negative Stereotype Stereotype (“Prevention”)(“Prevention”)
WorseWorse BetterBetter
GainsGains LossesLossesPositive Positive stereotype stereotype (“Promotion”(“Promotion”))
WorseWorse BetterBetter
Negative Negative Stereotype Stereotype (“Prevention(“Prevention”)”)
BetterBetter WorseWorse
Flexibility advantageous(rule-based)
Flexibility disadvantageous
(information-integration)
Information-integration Information-integration ClassificationClassification
Experiment StructureExperiment StructureGainsGains LossesLosses
ExperimeExperiment 3nt 3
Positive Positive stereotypstereotyp
eeMenMen FitFit MismatcMismatc
hh
Negative Negative StereotypStereotyp
eeWomenWomen MismatcMismatc
hh FitFit
ExperimeExperiment 4nt 4
Positive Positive stereotypstereotyp
eeWomenWomen FitFit MismatcMismatc
hh
Negative Negative StereotypStereotyp
eeMenMen MismatcMismatc
hh FitFit
Task AccuracyTask Accuracy(Preliminary data)(Preliminary data)
0.7
0.75
0.8
0.85
0.9
0.95
1
Gains Losses
Task
Prop
ortio
n C
orre
ct
WomenMen Experiment 3:
Men Positive Stereotype
Experiment 4: Women Positive Stereotype
0.7
0.75
0.8
0.85
0.9
0.95
1
Gains Losses
Task
Prop
ortio
n C
orre
ct
Women
Men
Positive Stereotype = worse performanceHypothesis supported for gains, but not losses
Preliminary Preliminary ConclusionsConclusions
When flexible strategy use is disadvantageous:
a negative stereotype is ADVANTAGEOUS in gains and losses conditions.
Data collection and modeling is ongoing.
Application Application 3:3:
Choking Choking Under Under
PressurePressureMarkman, Maddox & Worthy (2006; Markman, Maddox & Worthy (2006; Psychological Science)Psychological Science)
Choking Under PressureChoking Under Pressure Anecdotal phenomenon (e.g. sports, Anecdotal phenomenon (e.g. sports,
test-taking, etc.)test-taking, etc.)
Much like stereotype threat, people Much like stereotype threat, people perform worse than normal when perform worse than normal when under pressureunder pressure
Might pressure be similar to a Might pressure be similar to a prevention focus?prevention focus?
Choking Under PressureChoking Under Pressure Basketball dataBasketball data Free throw during last minute of gameFree throw during last minute of game
Proportion of Free-Throws Made Relative Career Averages
-0.10
-0.08
-0.06
-0.04-0.02
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Point Margin
Dis
tanc
e fro
m B
asel
ine
Categorization TasksCategorization TasksRule-Based Information-Integration
MethodMethod Gains onlyGains only Low pressure – “do your best”Low pressure – “do your best” High pressure:High pressure:
-Paired with a ‘partner’-Paired with a ‘partner’-If both of you reach criterion, both get $6-If both of you reach criterion, both get $6-If one of you fails neither get $6 bonus-If one of you fails neither get $6 bonus-Partner reached criterion-Partner reached criterion
Low-Low-Pressure Pressure Rule-basedRule-based
High-High-Pressure Pressure Rule-BasedRule-Based
Low-Low-PressurePressureInformationInformation--IntegrationIntegration
High-High-PressurePressureInformationInformation--IntegrationIntegration
PredictionsPredictions
Low Pressure High Pressure
Rule-Based Fit: Good Mismatch : Poor
Information-integration Fit: Poor Mismatch:
Good
Rule-based: Rule-based: Low pressure = Fit = flexible = good performanceLow pressure = Fit = flexible = good performance
Information-integration:Information-integration: Low pressure = Fit = flexible = poor performanceLow pressure = Fit = flexible = poor performance
Results Results Accuracy
0.54
0.56
0.58
0.6
0.62
0.64
0.66
0.68
0.7
0.72
Information-Integration Rule-Based
Prop
ortio
n C
orre
ct
High PressureLow Pressure
Rule-Based ModelingRule-Based Modeling
More low pressure (fit) subjects were best fit by the More low pressure (fit) subjects were best fit by the rule-based models.rule-based models.
More high pressure (mismatch) subjects are More high pressure (mismatch) subjects are random.random.
Rule-Based
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Low Pressure High Pressure
Perc
ent B
est F
it
RandomInfo-IntRule-Based
Information integration Information integration modelingmodeling
More high pressure subjects best fit by an More high pressure subjects best fit by an information integration model.information integration model.
More low pressure subjects random.More low pressure subjects random.
Information-Integration
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Low Pressure High Pressure
Perc
ent B
est F
it
RandomRule-BasedInfo-Int
SummarySummary Pressure does appear to operate like a prevention focus during classification learning (at least with gains).
Pressure (a mismatch with gains) hurts rule-based learning, but helps information-integration learning.
Extensions to highly learned categories are ongoing.
Application Application 4:4:
Choice-Choice-Gambling Gambling
TaskTaskWorthy, Maddox & Markman (in press; Worthy, Maddox & Markman (in press; Psychonomic Bulletin and Review)Psychonomic Bulletin and Review)
0
PICK A CARD! YesBonus No
450
174
0
174181
YesBonus No
450
7
0
PICK A CARD! YesBonus No
450
181
0PICK A CARD!
YesBonus No
-450
-311
0
-311-315
YesBonus No
-450
-4
0PICK A CARD!
YesBonus No
-450
-315
Deck CharacteristicsDeck Characteristics Experiment 1: Flexibility (exploration) is good
Disadvantageous deck early becomes advantageous as more samples are taken
Experiment 2: Flexibility (exploration) is bad One deck advantageous
Flexibility PredictionsFlexibility PredictionsGainsGains LossesLosses
PromotionPromotion BetterBetter WorseWorse
PreventionPrevention WorseWorse BetterBetter
BetterBetterPreventionPrevention
WorseWorsePromotionPromotion
GainsGains
Flexibility advantageous
Flexibility disadvantageous
Flexibility is Advantageous Flexibility is Advantageous Results Results
Average Distance from Criterion
-40
-35
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
0GAIN LOSS
Poin
ts B
elow
Crit
erio
n
Promotion Prevention
Flexibility is Flexibility is Disadvantageous Results Disadvantageous Results
Average Distance from Criterion
-100
-90
-80
-70
-60
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
Poin
t Bel
ow C
riter
ion
Promotion Prevention
Model-based AnalysesModel-based Analyses Applied a version of the softmax action selection model to individual subject data (Sutton, Barto, Daw, etc)
Model estimates probability of selecting each deck based on estimated value.
Includes an exploration/exploitation parameter
Modeling ResultsModeling ResultsExploration/Exploitation parameter values
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
Gains Losses
Expl
orat
ion-
Expl
oita
tion
Promotion Prevention
Exploration-Exploitation Parameter Values
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
Expl
orat
ion-
Expl
oita
tion
Promotion Prevention
Flexibility is Good
Flexibility is Bad
SummarySummary Regulatory Fit hypothesis applies to choice.
Fit leads to greater exploration.
Extensions to decks that require numerous switches are ongoing.
Application Application 5:5:
Signal Signal DetectionDetection
OverviewOverview Two-stimulus identification (line length)
100ms exposure durations, 2 pixel length difference Promotion/Prevention x Gains/Losses Payoffs biased toward “short” mouth
Results: Sensitivity (d’)Results: Sensitivity (d’)B
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1 2 3 Overall
Block (100-trials per block)
d'
Promotion-GainPromotion-LossPrevention-GainPrevention-Loss
Results: Sensitivity (Results: Sensitivity ())C
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
1 2 3 Overall
Block (100-trials per block)
Beta
Promotion-GainPromotion-LossPrevention-GainPrevention-Loss
SummarySummary Predicted fit to lead to better decision criterion learning.
Prediction unsupported.
Fit increased sensitivity.
Studies with more extensive training are ongoing.
Applications to depressed patients ongoing.
Overall SummaryOverall Summary We outline a framework for understanding the We outline a framework for understanding the
motivation-learning interface.motivation-learning interface. Global: promotion/prevention focusGlobal: promotion/prevention focus Local: gains/lossesLocal: gains/losses Most research involves a promotion focus and Most research involves a promotion focus and
gains.gains. We propose that a fit leads to more flexible We propose that a fit leads to more flexible
(exploratory) processing(exploratory) processing This may or may not be advantageousThis may or may not be advantageous We apply this to several domainsWe apply this to several domains
Classification, choice, signal detectionClassification, choice, signal detection
Open QuestionsOpen Questions Does a fit imply:Does a fit imply:
More efficient exploration of the strategy space, More efficient exploration of the strategy space, oror
Less evidence to abandon a rule?Less evidence to abandon a rule?
Is flexibility always from simple to complex Is flexibility always from simple to complex rules?rules? Bias toward complex rule initially, then gradually Bias toward complex rule initially, then gradually
introduce simple rule that yields bonus.introduce simple rule that yields bonus.
What is the relationship between exploration What is the relationship between exploration in the verbal rule-space and in the card task?in the verbal rule-space and in the card task?
Future DirectionsFuture Directions Understand mental disordersUnderstand mental disorders Many disorders lead to cognitive deficitsMany disorders lead to cognitive deficits
Do these reflect disruptions of information Do these reflect disruptions of information processing?processing?
Perhaps they reflect motivational issuesPerhaps they reflect motivational issues Anxiety disorders may lead to chronic Anxiety disorders may lead to chronic
prevention focusprevention focus Could lead to regulatory mismatchesCould lead to regulatory mismatches
Collaborators/Collaborators/FundingFunding
Darrell WorthyDarrell WorthyLisa GrimmLisa GrimmBrian GlassBrian GlassGrant BaldwinGrant Baldwin
Supported by NIMH R01 MH77708 and AFOSR grant FA9550-06-1-0204