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The Individual in Organisation
Instructor: Seth Oppong
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Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you should be able tounderstand the following:
Individual in the organisation
Personality: The big Five Factors Oppongs criticisms and revision of The Big Five
Factors
Self-esteem
Attitudes Self-awareness and disclosure
Johari Window for Self-awareness and disclosure
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Defining Organisation
Farnham and Horton (1996) define an
organisation as
social constructs created by groups in society to achievespecific purposes by means of planned and coordinated
activities. These activities involves using human resources to
act in association with other inanimate resources in order to
achieve the aims of the organisation
Pugh (1990) defines an organisation as a systemof inter-dependent human beings.
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Role of Individual in Organisation
If an organisation is made up individuals who work
together, then understanding of the individuals at
work and how well each can interact with one
another is crucial to developing an effectiveworkforce.
Understanding others should begin with
understanding ourselves.
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Self-concept
Self-concept is the way you see or picture
yourself.
Self-concept is the way you conceive yourselfand this conception of yourself is the
foundation of your self-esteem.
Self-concept has a lot to do with knowing
ones strengths and weaknesses.
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Types of Self-concept
Ideal self
Is the way you would like to be or plan to become
Looking-Glass self
Is the self you assume others see when they look atyou
Self-image
Is the way you honestly feel about yourself.
Real self
Is the way you really are when nobody is around toapprove or disapprove.
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What is the ideal situation?
That is when
Ideal self = Looking-glass self = Self-image = Real
self
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Pleasing yourself and pleasing others
Having a healthy self-concept means notallowing yourself to be a slave to otherpeoples opinions.
On the other hand, it is a bit uncomfortablebeing around people who do not need anyoneto like them or accept them.
Balancing the need to being yourself andpleasing others is instrumental to developing ahealthy self-concept.
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Self-esteem
Lamberton and Minor-Evans (2002) defines self-esteemas the regard in which an individual holds himself orherself.
Coppersmith (1967) also defines it as the extent towhich an individual believes himself or herself to becapable, sufficient, and worthy.
Do you wonder why some people brag about
themselves? Most people who always have a need to tell about their
accomplishments are actually compensating in some wayfor low self-esteem.
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Why know your self-esteem?
Liking and accepting yourself is one of the mostimportant skills you can learn in life.
All relationships you have or will have with others
will be affected by the way you see yourself,accept or reject yourself, and assume others feelabout you.
What is known is thatpeople with low self-esteem tend to have more emotional problemsthan others
It is also known that low self-esteem is fairlywidespread.
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Why develop high self-esteem?
1. People with high self-esteem are more likely tosucceed at their personal goals and career goals
2. Positive self-esteem is often the key factor that
separates success from failure. If you believe you aregood enough to succeed, your chances of success aremuch higher than they would without such a belief.
3. Work performance of individuals with low self-esteemsuffers. That is, such people tend to experienceanxiety, depression, aggressiveness, feelings ofresentment and alienation, unhappiness, andinsomnia.
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Why develop high self-esteem?
Contd.
4. People with low self-esteem also feel
awkward in social settings, including the
workplace.
5. Low self-esteem is associated with low job
satisfaction, and even a higher likelihood of
unemployment. This is because such people
usually work with little enthusiasm or
commitment.
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How does self-esteem develop?
It starts to develop in early childhood. As a
result, self-esteem starts to develop at home
with parents playing an important role in its
formation.
For younger children, parents play a vital role
in its formation while for older children and
adolescents, their teachers, friends, coaches,and others build or destroy their self-esteem.
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How does self-esteem develop?
Parent/Guardian Child
Unconditional
positive regardHigh Self-esteem
Parent/Guardian Child
Conditional
positive regard Low self-esteem
Unconditional positive regard- is the acceptance of individuals as worthy regardless of
what their behaviour at the moment may be.
Conditional positive regard- is the acceptance of individuals as worthy only when they
behave in a certain way.
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Self-awareness
The ability to see yourself realistically, without
a great deal of difference between what you
are and what you assume others see you.
In other words, better self-awareness means
developing a better looking-glass self (the self
you assume others see when they look at you)
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The JOHARI window
Information known
to others
Information unknown
to others
Information
known
to you
Information
Unknown
to you
Open/Public Blind spot
Hidden/Private Unknown
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Nnoboa Session:Becoming aware
of yourself Write down 3 things about yourself that youbelieve
(A) you and people who know you are aware of
(B) only you know about yourself
Find a partner to do the following:
your partner should tick those things you said
about yourself at A and B that he or she agreeswith as description of you.
your partner should write down three things he or
she knows about you that you are not aware of
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Self-disclosure
Involves letting another person know your real
thoughts, desires, and feelings.
It means expanding the open pane by reducing the
hidden, blind spot, and the unknown.
Disclosure leads to openness and honesty both of
which are needed in the workplace for open
communication.
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Why are people encouraged to hold
information about themselves?
To feel all-powerful
To control the feelings of others
To feel superior to those around them
To believe that they are perfect
To have everyones approval
To feel safe from people who might challenge
them To deny that they have problems
To avoid the feelings of inadequacy
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Consequences of Failure to self-
disclose
Loss of relationships
Waste of time and energy
It wastes a lot of time trying to create and maintain a false
image. Loss of sense of identity
Failure to self-disclose may hinder ones self-acceptanceand assertiveness because much of self-knowledge comesthrough close and genuine contacts with others.
Slowdown of personal growth
Failure to self-disclose also means loss of opportunity tohave advise to deal with personal problems.
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When is self-disclosure
appropriate? When it is a function of an ongoing
relationship
When it occurs reciprocally When it is timed to fit what is happening
When it moves by relatively small increments
When account is taken of the effect disclosurehas on the other persons
When it is speeded up in a crisis
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Attitude
It is the position that results from the beliefs and
feelings people have about themselves and others
Attitude has three components:
Thoughts
Feelings/emotions
Actions
Attitudes are usually linked to self-esteem
People with low self-esteem will often show attitudes that
are not based on the way things really are, rather on their
own feelings of inadequacy.
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What makes a good attitude?
Healthy self-esteem
Optimism
being hopeful Knowing how to interact with others
Developing sense of personal control
The power over ones destiny.
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Attitude and Work performance
Both employees and managers hold attitudes
at work.
Usually, employees attitude is directed attheir job of which the management is part.
Managers also direct their attitude towards
the employees.
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Theory X and Theory Y
Theory X Assumptions
People do not like work and try to
avoid it.
People do not like work, somanagers have to control, direct,
coerce, and threaten employees
to get them to work toward
organizational goals.
People prefer to be directed,to avoid responsibility, and
to want security; they have
little ambition.
Theory Y Assumptions
People do not dislike work; work is anatural part of their lives.
People are internally motivated to
reach objectives to which they arecommitted.
People are committed to goals to thedegree that they receive rewardswhen they reach their objectives.
People both seek and accept
responsibility under favorableconditions.
People can be innovative in solvingproblems.
People are bright, but under mostorganizational conditions theirpotentials are underutilized.
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How does managements attitude
affect employee performance?
According to Livingston (1979), if managers have
positive attitude and expect employees to be highly
productive, they will be highly productive.
He introduced the concept ofPygmalion effect This states that supervisors attitudes and expectations of
employees and how they treat them largely determine
their performance. However, Pygmalion effectis used to
refer to the communication of positive and highexpectations that lead to high performance.
Golem effectis used to refer to the situation where
managers communicate negative and low expectations of
employees.
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What about your own expectations
about yourself? Galatea effect
The tendency for high self-expectations to result
in high performance.
Experience with success helps to build that self-
expectations.
Self-fulfilling prophecy explains this phenomenon.
It states that an individual will perform as well or aspoorly as he or she expects himself or herself to
perform. This expectation usually comes from what
others think and say about them!
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Personality
May be defined as the relatively stable set of traits
that aids in explaining and predicting individual
behaviour.
Other definitions of personality: The consistent, enduring, and unique characteristics of a person
Characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.
Understanding personality has relevance for the
following work practices:
Recruitment and selection
Personal development
Teamworking
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Theories of personality
Psychoanalytic theory proposes that childhood
sexuality and unconscious motivations influence our
personality
Trait theory characteristics that account forconsistent behaviour patterns can be identified and
studied
Humanistic theory focuses on our inner capacities
for growth and self-fulfillment
Social-cognitive perspective emphasizes how we
shape and are shaped by our environment (both
physical and social)
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Relative Importance of Environment
and Traits in influencing behaviour
In a review of the person-situation debate, Stewart
and Barrick (2004) concluded that traits are most
likely to predict, explain and influence behaviour in
weak job environments that are characterized bycomplexity, less structure and allow for autonomy.
In other words, traits influence behaviour in a less
structured and more complex environment while the
influence of traits is almost nil in less complex and
more structured environments.
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Five Factor Model
Factor Trait
Conscientiousness Orderly, organized, dependable, meticulous, thorough,
industrious, etc.
Emotional
Stability/neuroticism
Passionless, autonomous, not anxious, not nervous,
unemotional, etc.
Openness to
experience
Contemplative, intellectual, meditative, insightful, artistic,
smart, etc.
Extraversion Sociable, gregarious, expressive, communicative,
energetic, carefree, etc.
Agreeableness Accommodating, helpful, cooperative, pleasant, polite,trustful, etc.
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The Five factor and Performance
Two meta-analyses (Hurtz & Donvan, 2000;
Salgado, 2003)have concluded that
personality is associated with job
performance, with conscientiousness being
the best predictor.
The conclusion that conscientiousness is
related with high work performance has alsobeen confirmed in a more recent study by
Higgins et al (2007).
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How culturally universal are these five factors
of personality?
Is this five-factor framework applicable to all cultures
including Ghanas and Africas?
Rossier et al (2005) concluded from a study of 470 Burkinabes
that
this study suggests that even if the FFM is universally applicable, it
more adequately maps personality in some cultural contexts (Western
cultures) than others (non-Western cultures) and raises the possibility
that there may be regional differences in structure.
Their study indicated that probably only conscientiousness,
emotional stability, and openness are universal traits that cut
across different cultures
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Factor Trait
Conscientiousness Orderly, organized, dependable, meticulous, thorough,
industrious, etc.
Emotional Stability Passionless, autonomous, not anxious, not nervous,
unemotional, etc.
Openness to experience Contemplative, intellectual, meditative, insightful,
artistic, smart, etc.
Love versus Hate Warmth, gregariousness, positive emotions, trust,
altruism, tender-mindedness, etc.
Submission versus
Dominance
Frank (S), compliant (S), modest (S), assertive (D),
active (D), Excitement-seeking (D), etc.
Personality Factors and their associated traits in
Burkina Faso (Rossier et al 2005)
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Oppongs (Course instructor) Reconstruction from
Burkinabe Study by Rossier et al (2005)
Factor Trait
Conscientiousness Orderly, organized, dependable, meticulous, thorough,
industrious, etc.
Emotional Stability Passionless, autonomous, not anxious, not nervous,unemotional, etc.
Openness to experience Contemplative, intellectual, meditative, insightful,
artistic, smart, etc.
Humanitarianism/sociability Warmth, gregariousness, positive emotions, trust,
altruism, tender-mindedness, etc.
Unassuming (Not showing off) Truthful, compliant, modest, etc.
Self-assurance Assertive, Active, Excitement-seeking, etc.
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Personality Types: MBTI
Based on the well-known research ofCarl Jung, Katharine C.
Briggs, and Isabel Briggs Myers
Theory of Personality Types contends that:
An individual is either primarilyExtraverted orIntroverted
An individual is either primarilySensing or iNtuitive An individual is either primarilyThinking orFeeling
An individual is either primarilyJudging orPerceiving
The possible combinations of the basic preferences form 16
different Personality Types.Learning about other people's Personality Types help us
understand the most effective way to communicate with them,
and how they function best.
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Briggs-Myers Type Indicator
ISTJIntroverted Sensing with
auxiliary extraverted
Thinking
ISFJIntroverted Sensing with
auxiliary extraverted
Feeling
INFJIntroverted iNtuition with
auxiliary extraverted Feeling
INTJIntroverted iNtuition with
auxiliary extraverted
Thinking
ISTP
I
ntroverted Thinking withauxiliary extravertedSensing
ISFP
I
ntroverted Feeling withauxiliary extravertedSensing
INFP
I
ntroverted Feeling withauxiliary extravertediNtuition
INTP
I
ntroverted Thinking withauxiliary extravertediNtuition
ESTPExtraverted Sensing with
auxiliary introverted
Thinking
ESFPExtraverted Sensing with
auxiliary introverted
Feeling
ENFP
Extraverted iNtuition with
auxiliary introverted Feeling
ENTPExtraverted iNtuition with
auxiliary introverted
Thinking
ESTJExtraverted Thinking with
auxiliary introverted Sensing
ESFJExtraverted Feeling with
auxiliary introverted
Sensing
ENFJExtraverted Feeling with
auxiliary introverted
iNtuition
ENTJExtraverted Thinking with
auxiliary introverted
iNtuition