The Incalculable Scientific Benefits of
Space Probes
Robert Christian Taylor
October 10, 2011
The Incalculable Scientific Benefits of Space Probes Robert C. Taylor
2
The Incalculable Scientific Benefits of Space Probes
Exploring space using autonomous probes has shed scientific light on much of the
solar system and Earth. However, the cost of these programs falls upon the government
due to a lack of private incentive. Unfortunately, claims have been circulated around
saying space exploration has provided nothing of scientific value. Aggravating the issue,
the political pressure to balance the government‟s budget has repeatable left less and less
money going to these programs citing the claim of no scientific value. Consequently, less
and less resources are being directed to space probe based exploration and the idea that
space probes have no benefit continues to be perpetuated injuring the future through the
denying of an increase in technological and scientific understanding. As stated, these
conditions have resulted from the erroneous claim autonomous space exploration
produces no benefits. Autonomous space exploration has produced incalculable amounts
of scientific information along with advancements in technology.
First, the early space probes expanded the scientific knowledge of Earth‟s
exosphere, magnetosphere. The motivation to study Earth from space was sourced from
the international event termed the International Geophysical Year which, according to
Dickson, “involved more than 5,000 scientists in the effort to find out as much as they
could about the Earth, the Sun, and outer space.1” The first spacecraft launched in
accordance with this initiative was the launch of Sputnik One by the USSR on October 4,
1957. Some scientific facts returned included the general temperature variance of the
exosphere, orbital decay characteristics, and propagation characteristics of space based
1 Paul, Dickson. Sputnik: the shock of the century (United States: Walker Publishing Company, Inc. 2001),
10
The Incalculable Scientific Benefits of Space Probes Robert C. Taylor
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communication in the ionosphere.2 Another significant achievement was the discovery of
the Van Allen Radiation belt by the United State‟s Vanguard III, launched September 19,
19593. The discovery of the radiation belt was called “the first major space discovery and
the most important finding of the IGY. 4
” This claim was no understatement because the
radiation plays havoc on satellite electronics5. Therefore, if satellites are to last any
appreciable amount of time then the electronics will require protection from the
radiation6.
Second, the space probe technologically benefits society and provides scientific
foresight. From the early age of exploration using space probes, subsequent satellite
designs would benefit from the discovery of the radiation belt, and would benefit from
the experience gained from shielding space probes from the radiation. Thus, these early
probes began the trend of increasing reliability and durability of both later and modern
spacecrafts. Moreover, technological progress was fostered from the research and
development undertaken to build the Vanguard satellite series. Ultimately, the research
used to develop the Vanguard probes would further help develop the integrated circuit
and promote the miniaturization of electronics which was a crucial development leading
2 “Soviet Craft – Sputnik.” Journey Through the Galaxy. Last Modified: January 11, 2006. (accessed
September 30, 2011),
http://burro.cwru.edu/stu/advanced/20th_soviet_sputnik.html 3 Paul, Dickson. Sputnik: the shock of the century (United States: Walker Publishing Company, Inc. 2001),
183 4 Paul, Dickson. Sputnik: the shock of the century (United States: Walker Publishing Company, Inc. 2001),
182 5 "RADIATION BELTS." (n.d.): Funk & Wagnalls New World Encyclopedia, EBSCOhost (accessed
September 17, 2011). 6 Some readers will argue the Sputnik series launched by the USSR, and the Vanguard series launched by
the United States are not true space probes but instead artificial satellites. However, they can be considered
space probes because before their time there existed no satellites and little was known about the space
around Earth. Thus, they did what a space probe does which is exploring the little to unknown paving the
way for the entry of manned exploration and commercial enterprise.
The Incalculable Scientific Benefits of Space Probes Robert C. Taylor
4
to the digital age7. Finally, Vanguard 1, launched by the United States, provided scientific
foresight by discovering photons, and solar winds have an impact on the orbit of a space
vehicle which allowed later interplanetary space missions to compensate for their
effects8.
Third, space probes have performed reconnaissance for later missions and have
returned valuable scientific information and the occasional technological benefit. The
first space probes launched toward the outer solar system were Pioneer 10 and 11,
launched in 1972 and 1973 respectively9. The two probes showed space probes could
cross the asteroid belt without being destroyed, additionally these probes provided the
first measurements of the intensity of Jupiter‟s radiation belts, and provide the first close
up pictures of Jupiter. Also, these probes proved the feasibility of a gravity assist which
was important in its own right as this maneuver would be used on practically all later
missions as a way to gain speed and reduce fuel cost10
. Additionally, these probes
indirectly helped advance the sensitivity of radio receivers because NASA had to
“sharpen the communication apparatus for the deep-space communication.” 11
Next came
the two Voyager probes, named Voyager 1 and Voyager 2, launched toward the end of
1977 by the United States12.
These two discovered many new moons, Voyager 1 and
7 Dickson, Paul. Sputnik: the shock of the century (United States: Walker Publishing Company, Inc. 2001),
180
8 Paul, Dickson. Sputnik: the shock of the century (United States: Walker Publishing Company, Inc. 2001),
181 9Stephen, Pyne. Voyager: seeking newer worlds in the third great age of discovery (New York, New York:
Penguin Group (USA) Inc. 2010),156 10
Stephen, Pyne. Voyager: seeking newer worlds in the third great age of discovery (New York, New
York: Penguin Group (USA) Inc. 2010),156 11
Stephen, Pyne. Voyager: seeking newer worlds in the third great age of discovery (New York, New
York: Penguin Group (USA) Inc. 2010),154-155 12
Stephen, Pyne. Voyager: seeking newer worlds in the third great age of discovery (New York, New
York: Penguin Group (USA) Inc. 2010),XIV
The Incalculable Scientific Benefits of Space Probes Robert C. Taylor
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Voyager 2 shed scientific light on the magnetosphere of the outer Jovian planets.
Furthermore, Voyager 2 discovered the presence of a ring around Uranus, and made the
astonishing discovery of intense geological activity on Triton, a moon of Neptune which
would become the target of further scientific exploration by the Cassini probe. Thus the
scientific data provided by these missions would be used to formulate the targets and
goals of later space probes.
Next, the Cassini and Galileo mission provided data on the outer solar system
planets, and their moons, which led to insight into Earth weather patterns, and the origin
of life. Galileo was launched toward Jupiter in October of 1989 and entered into orbit
around the gas giant December of 1995 and immediately began sending back scientific
data13
. Some of the data sent back indicated the presence of a liquid ocean beneath the
moon surface of the moon Europa. Additionally, Galileo was armed with a planetary
probe designed to explore the workings of Jupiter‟s atmosphere which was successfully
launched into the planet‟s atmosphere sending back valuable scientific data useful for
scientific study of our atmosphere14
. According to Koupelis, “Jupiter may provide an
even better study of weather systems [..] for weather patterns in the upper atmosphere of
Jupiter are far removed from any solid surface [..] and, therefore, are [..] unaffected by
13
"SPACE EXPLORATION." (n.d.): Funk & Wagnalls New World Encyclopedia, EBSCOhost (accessed
September 17, 2011).
http://web.ebscohost.com.db07.linccweb.org/ehost/delivery?sid=b1b976a4-45a4-40a1-8544-
f00983106882@sessionmgr112&vid=7&hid=123&db=FUNK&ss=AN+%22PL093800%22&sl=ll
“Shuttle Launched After Delay And Galileo Is Sent to Jupiter.” New York Times (1923-Current File),
October 19, 1989.
http://search.proquest.com/docview/110213400?accountid=10674 14
“Goodbye to Gallant Galileo.” New York Times (1923-Current File), September 24, 2003.
http://search.proquest.com/docview/92501449?accountid=10674|
The Incalculable Scientific Benefits of Space Probes Robert C. Taylor
6
[..] surface irregularities.15
” Essentially Koupelis is illustrating that by using the data
from Jupiter, Earths weather system can be better understood because Jupiter‟s weather
system is much less complicated then Earth‟s atmosphere16
. Second, Cassini was
launched toward Saturn on October 15, 1997 and entered in orbit around the planet on
July 1st, 2004
17. In the course of orbiting the planet the probe learned more about Saturn
atmosphere, its rings, and observed many of its moons. Additionally, scientific data was
gained from the launching and landing of the Huygens probe onto Titan whose
environment, scientist believe, is similar to Earth‟s early environment. Thus, scientists
have used the data to better understand the conditions which led to the formation of life
on early Earth.18
.
Third, an increase in the understanding of the inner planets was facilitated by
space probe based exploration. First, scientific understanding of Venus was gained from
the ten to fifteen space probes launched by the USSR‟s Venera program between the
years of 1973-198419
. Collectively, these probes exposed Venus‟s surface through the use
of radar, sampled the condition of the planet‟s atmosphere, and returned the first pictures
15
Theo, Koupelis. In Quest of The Universe Sixth Edition. Sudbury, Massachusetts (Jones and Bartlett
Publishers, 2011), 247 16
Theo, Koupelis. In Quest of The Universe Sixth Edition. Sudbury, Massachusetts (Jones and Bartlett
Publishers, 2011), 247 17
“The Cassini Mission to Saturn.” Cassini Solstice Mission. Last Modified October 1999.
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/multimedia/products/pdfs/cassini_msn.pdf
18
“Cassini Solstice Mission: About Saturn & its Moons.” Cassini Solstice Mission. Accessed October 4,
2011.
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/science/index.cfm?SciencePageID=73 19
"SPACE EXPLORATION." (n.d.): Funk & Wagnalls New World Encyclopedia, EBSCOhost (accessed
September 17, 2011).
http://web.ebscohost.com.db07.linccweb.org/ehost/delivery?sid=b1b976a4-45a4-40a1-8544-
f00983106882@sessionmgr112&vid=7&hid=123&db=FUNK&ss=AN+%22PL093800%22&sl=ll
The Incalculable Scientific Benefits of Space Probes Robert C. Taylor
7
of the planet‟s surface20
. Additionally, the US„s Pioneer-Venus probes, launched on May
20th
, and August 8th
of 1978, and the Magellan probe, launched in 1989, used radar to
map the surface of Venus21
. Noteworthy, the study of Venus by these probes provided
insight about Earth‟s weather system as Venus suffers from a severe green house effect.
Like Jupiter, by observing Venus we learn much more about how carbon dioxide affects
our own ecosystem on earth22
. Additionally, through the launch of probes an increased
understanding of the Martian planet was learned. The stream of scientific data about Mars
began with pictures take of Mars by the flyby of Mariner 4 in 1964. In 1971, Mariner 9
passed the red planet providing much higher quality photos of the planet. The question of
life on Mars was answered by two Viking landers through an experiment they conducted
on the surface of Mars23
. Eventually, our modern understanding of Mars was established
in the late 1990‟s from a series of highly successful space probes sent there. The first
probe, the Mars Global Surveyor, began its orbit around Mars in September of 1997 and
provided scientific data about the Martian crust24
. More information on the crust
followed from the successful landing of the Sojourner rover, the Spirit Rover, the
Opportunity Rover, and the Phoenix lander. All in all, these robotic landers sent details
20
"SPACE EXPLORATION." (n.d.): Funk & Wagnalls New World Encyclopedia, EBSCOhost (accessed
September 17, 2011).
http://web.ebscohost.com.db07.linccweb.org/ehost/delivery?sid=b1b976a4-45a4-40a1-8544-
f00983106882@sessionmgr112&vid=7&hid=123&db=FUNK&ss=AN+%22PL093800%22&sl=ll 21
"SPACE EXPLORATION." (n.d.): Funk & Wagnalls New World Encyclopedia, EBSCOhost (accessed
September 17, 2011).
http://web.ebscohost.com.db07.linccweb.org/ehost/delivery?sid=b1b976a4-45a4-40a1-8544-
f00983106882@sessionmgr112&vid=7&hid=123&db=FUNK&ss=AN+%22PL093800%22&sl=ll 22
Theo, Koupelis. In Quest of The Universe Sixth Edition. Sudbury, Massachusetts (Jones and Bartlett
Publishers, 2011), 247 23
Theo, Koupelis. In Quest of The Universe Sixth Edition. Sudbury, Massachusetts (Jones and Bartlett
Publishers, 2011), 228-229 24
"SPACE EXPLORATION." (n.d.): Funk & Wagnalls New World Encyclopedia, EBSCOhost (accessed
September 17, 2011).
http://web.ebscohost.com.db07.linccweb.org/ehost/delivery?sid=b1b976a4-45a4-40a1-8544-
f00983106882@sessionmgr112&vid=7&hid=123&db=FUNK&ss=AN+%22PL093800%22&sl=ll
The Incalculable Scientific Benefits of Space Probes Robert C. Taylor
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on the composition of the Martian crust, the atmosphere, and one, the Phoenix lander,
proved the presence of water on Mars25
.
Therefore, much of what we know about the solar system would still be unknown
if it were not for space probes. They have been sent many places, have learned many new
things, and have made fundamentals scientific discoveries which have answered old
questions but have led to the rising of new ones. They have contributed technologically to
the future and have provided valuable scientific insight for future projects. By sending
these probes out to other planets scientist have learned more about the solar planets and
in doing so have learned more about Earth through the use of these other planets as
models. While not immediate, these space probes have been worth their cost as their
benefits have been felt in the short run and in the decades and centuries to come. Thus,
funding should continued to be allocated to them else risk losing their scientific
advantage.
25
Theo, Koupelis. In Quest of The Universe Sixth Edition. Sudbury, Massachusetts (Jones and Bartlett
Publishers, 2011), 224-225
The Incalculable Scientific Benefits of Space Probes Robert C. Taylor
9
“Cassini Solstice Mission: About Saturn & its Moons.” Cassini Solstice Mission.
Accessed October 4, 2011.
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/science/index.cfm?SciencePageID=73
Dickson, Paul. Sputnik: The Shock of The Century. United States: Walker Publishing
Company, Inc. 2001.
“Goodbye to Gallant Galileo.” New York Times (1923-Current File), September 24,
2003.
http://search.proquest.com/docview/92501449?accountid=10674|
Koupelis, Theo. In Quest of The Universe Sixth Edition. Sudbury, Massachusetts: Jones
and Bartlett Publishers, 2011.
Pyne, Stephen. Voyager: Seeking Newer Worlds in the Third Great Age of Discovery.
New York, New York: Penguin Group (USA) Inc. 2010.
"RADIATION BELTS." (n.d.): Funk & Wagnalls New World Encyclopedia,
EBSCOhost (accessed September 17, 2011).
“Shuttle Launched After Delay And Galileo Is Sent to Jupiter.” New York Times (1923-
Current File), October 19, 1989.
http://search.proquest.com/docview/110213400?accountid=10674
“Soviet Craft – Sputnik.” Journey Through the Galaxy. Last Modified: January 11, 2006.
(accessed September 30, 2011).
http://burro.cwru.edu/stu/advanced/20th_soviet_sputnik.html
"SPACE EXPLORATION." (n.d.): Funk & Wagnalls New World Encyclopedia,
EBSCOhost (accessed September 17, 2011).
http://web.ebscohost.com.db07.linccweb.org/ehost/delivery?sid=b1b976a4-45a4-
40a1-8544-
f00983106882@sessionmgr112&vid=7&hid=123&db=FUNK&ss=AN+%22PL0
93800%22&sl=ll
“Sputnik in Flight.” New York Times (1923-Current File), October 13, 1957.
http://search.proquest.com/docview/114102220?accountid=10674.
“The Cassini Mission to Saturn.” Cassini Solstice Mission. Last Modified October 1999.
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/multimedia/products/pdfs/cassini_msn.pdf
The Incalculable Scientific Benefits of Space Probes Robert C. Taylor
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"Venera Program." Astronomy & Space: From the Big Bang to the Big Crunch, Gale
Science In Context. August 30, 2007. (accessed September 21, 2011).
http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/scic/ReferenceDetailsPage/ReferenceDetailsWindow?d
isplayGroupName=Reference&disableHighlighting=false&prodId=SCIC&action
=e&windowstate=normal&catId=&documentId=GALE%7CCV2640050188&mo
de=view&userGroupName=lincclin_ecc&jsid=532791ce6b98014afd05df4166a29
4b3
"Viking Program." Astronomy & Space: From the Big Bang to the Big Crunch, Gale
Science In Context. June 30, 2008. (accessed September 17, 2011).
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isplayGroupName=Reference&disableHighlighting=false&prodId=SCIC&action
=e&windowstate=normal&catId=&documentId=GALE%7CCV2640050191&mo
de=view&userGroupName=lincclin_ecc&jsid=29b522f746f68c4eaa554fa90fa31
7b3
The Incalculable Scientific Benefits of Space Probes Robert C. Taylor
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