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The importance
af research
for usic
Education
~
Keith Swanwick •
Introduction
views of others with-out criticaI comment Or syr;
thesis; i t is
not
the narrationof selected anecdotes
Is
anything research ?
I
have heard
artists
and
composers claim
that
in
producing works
of
art or
composing they are themselves researching. This
assertion is justified by the observation that the
artistor musician is exploring
newterritory,
creating
novel ideas in a public formo l t is possible
to
make
the
same claim
for
teaching,
that
teaching
itself
is
a constant reshaping of materiais and
activities
and
teaching styles to
meet
changing circumstancesand
that in developing curriculum
activities
the teacher
is a researcher.
I
define research
as
form of structured enquiry.
Composing, painting,
writing
noveIs and
pàetry or
developing a curriculum from inside the classroom
important activities,
indeed
I
would
say
that
are often more important than research.
Re-
earch, is
different.
Let us
not
confuse professional
development with systematic; structured enquiry,
which
is less ambitious and
not
sopersonal. though
i t can be just as creative.
Four essential criteria characterise research:
1.
A field of inquiry
is placed
in a
'Nlder
context
The
implication
here is thatany research problem
~ h o u d
be
seen
as
contributing
to
prafessional de
·Vélopment in
the
fjeld, in
our
case the
field
of
music ed.ucation. There is no point in undertaking
systematic
work 011 thicknesses
of clarinet
reeds,
or
tests
of musical abil ity, or the history of sol-fa,
unless
we
place them in a professional
perspective.
2. The conceptual basis is made explicit
The assumptions
must
be declared. The under
j ~ i n g
value
system must
be revealed.
3. A methodology is
articulated
to move
towards
. objectivity
, . We cannotmanoeuvre
ourselves
into a state of .
-total· neutrality: what we can do is to see
that
ali
precautions are taken to establish the autonomy ot
the findings. Essential!y, the researcher
must
adopt
a seff-critical posture.
4. _The results of the investigation are shared with
others·
Public sharing makes i t possíble to test the
WOiK,S(imetimes torepf icareit irrorderto-reexa
mine the
credibility of
the findings.
From
this it
b-ecomesfairlycleat as
to -
what
~ e s e a r c h Is
noto It
is not stating deeply held c o n ~
iêtions without reasoning
them
through or pre
, senting re!evant evidence; l t is not quotingthe
to support the case; nor is it
the
expression
of
the
obvious in difficult language.
Research in music education seems to have
three main areas of focus.
The first area Is to wíth people, our studentb.
We are interested in what motívates them. what
theirattitudesare tomusico We are concerned about
how
they
d ~ v e l o P
in musical termsand what counts
as achievin in
music
for them. We would like
to
knowmore about whatthey bring tomusic lessons
in
terms
of previous experience. social and
family
background and so on.
The second area
of
interest is to do withmusíc
itself.
What kind of experience
c o n s t i t u t ~ s
musical
experience?
Is there a deep
structure
tothis expe
rience that transcends local and historical diffe
rences of
style
and form ?
The
third
area
of
concern
is to
do
with
institu
tional settings. the places where musical students
meet.
Are
schools appropriate places for music?!
activities
? Can differentethnic
and
cultural groups
relate together
to
different kinds of musíc in an
institutional
framework? What size of groups
ere
optimum
for
special purposes?
Research in the social sciences i8 characterised
by
complexities
unusual in
the
laboratory. This Is
complicatedby théhigh politicalprofileofedl,lcatlon.
Essentially. thís research involves
looking'atpeople
carefully,.
trying
toc ?r i fy , to objectify. There
really only four major
ways
of looking at people.
1. By experiment - rnanipulating one or more
variable[eg.changing
gravitational pull towards
weightlessness)and rneasuring othervariables (pro
blem solving
abilities,
body weight, patterns
of
eating or sleep etc.).
2. By observation without intervention as in
research ínto the natural habits
of
creatures or
ethnographic/anthropological study
3. By verbal inquiry - asking questions. inter
viewing.usirigaquestionnaireorattitude inventory,
etc.
4. By
product
analysis - looking at the
artifacts
of ancient G-reeks
orRomans,
exarnining the pain
ting,
writing
or music-rnaking
of
children, analysing
tapes
of
children's language or
their written
solu
t ions to
mathematícal problems. Product evaluation
is non-interactive,
i t takes
place atone remove.
Experimental.
methodology
is one towards rnany
researchers consciously ar unconsciously aspire,
It
is the
'scientific'
approach. So,
we
plant seeds,
fertilize some but leave others aloneand rneaslire
differencE?s i
l1
.growth. controlling
the laboratory
conditions ofheat, hum.idity and light.man'ipulating .
onli the
'independent' variable (the
type
of
fertilizer)
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400
30ü
200
probab!y kept outside in the snow.
;,élàmparticularly'intêre's'ted .irl ih ê'evaluationof
mUsiccu'rricUlúrií activ'iti'es and 'i:hê" músicaldeve
lcipment'
bf.
c h l l d r e n ; í r W o l v i n g ; ; " c ~ ~ ' r e f ú l ' ó b s é : r v à t j on
ano "prõdtiCí " ~ v a r U ~ H C ) r í > ' ' ô v e r ' ~ e ~ ~ R ? J e d , ar . ?good
theoryofthe nature'oL,musicalexp8I'ience... c
. Here áre
just
t h r e e ' ~ ~ ~ ' ; n p l e s f r ó m current 'work
Ob
niorlstrafe, h e ~ ~ ã 6 U i w ~ ; g ~ p r ~ y ~ ; I P : . L I ~ f i ~ r ) 9 ~ . ~ $ Ó : f i : ~ ~ t o . : } E ~ ( ) ( ) l s f()r those •with.be.havioral proble!!,s.:-_9
ur
- á eh
ieve . th
i
S = r e c r t í l f ê S i H e ~ a b i l i t y ~ ~ t o ~ p J ~ T T o u d
-iria
''!:.esearch <iuestion was
whEtth
er
groupmusi
c
i
s
a
s b f t ~ . J ~
- ª J : : h l º - ' i ~ J : I i i . ~ L r ~ q l 1 . [ E i : s
jhç:..abiJity:to.changeyiable, manageable
activlty
withthese chi Idren.
and
measuring the 'depúndent variable (the size
of the crop). From time to time we come across
some amusing attenpts to carry out experimental
work without controls.
Onelady
once confided in
that she had proved
that talking
to plants made
.Iem grow and
had
three groups of plants in three
different boxes.
One group was spoken to
:n
a kindly kind of
way. a second group was spoken to in a somewhat
abusive manner and the thirdgroup was ignored.
The
plants thrived best in
that
order.
Clearly'all
the plants must have been in a
dífferent
atmospheric
condition and therefore in
different
rooms in the
house ar they would have overheard the conver·
sations. I fear that the plants being ignored were
in m ~ i d e p a r t 1 e ~ t . · . .
" " " : . . ; ; . , . . , , , " ~ : , . . - ~ ~ : : - " . : . . : : . . '
Teaching
the
violin
. l h e research context he're fs theschema 'theory
o r ~ ~ H I learning and tlú:i concept'of :váried practice.
For
example,if
we throw
beanbags
a target. we
im'prove
ouraeeuracyby'
pràetising Jromcdifferent
distanees and,.with .different'weightsofmissife.
Does iaried p r a é t i c e h ~ i p : i l 1 , 6 1 u ' 8 . L c : ~ ? l n ~ t b i s ' p a r t i ,
Gular
.:.ease
we ;are· trying , t o ~ a s s e s s : : h o w : e f f e c t i v e : · ·
is
the"üseof t h e \ i i o l i i l b õ v v - : - ~ B o w
control aeteFITíines'
thejevel, ôr J ó u a n e s - s . ~ J ) u P l l s ~ t h e r e f o F ê ~ h c l a · t ( ; .de- .. Here
DOW
speed and length. Slx obsiúvations were made
by seven judgeslistef'ling
to
'tapes of the pupils
. e f f < ? r ~ s . ;
. ~ . .
. ._ c:
: ~ ~ ~ - ~ ~ f : ; ~ ~ : ; ~ ~ ~ - ~ ~ i G } = ; · : : : ; n . ,
,
~ _ , . s e s s i o n s : L , : . : . 3 J n v o l v e d
~ o b s e L v a t i ó f ' l s b e f o r e
inter,
ventionvvitlivarfêd p r a C t i c e : ' c S e s : : l i o n s 4 ' ~ - 6 í n c l u c l e d
' o b s ~ r y a t i 6 n s J o l l ( ) w i n ª \iúiaole
.practice goTngwell
~ y o n d what was required for the task itself - í 6
'l'erent bow lengths.
_The seores
of on:;group
. ofpupi ls are here
shown.
We found
it
almost impossible to find any musi
~ a l activities in these schools. .
c
'The
reasons we . weregiven ranged from lack
of confidence among the teáchers alÍd serious·i::!oubts
as
to the social management
of
groups making
musico IlIness, absenee
of
teaehers, trüãncy and
the volatile' nature of the groups makes steady
observation difficult. We adopted the strategy of
pairíng several observationsmade under lhe' expe,
rimental
conditionswith
those in similar but non
-experimental (no musie) settings.Teachers i n ~ s e v e -
ral schools were asked to chose a subject that
they
though might
mostcloselycorrespond with'iijúsie
i
ll
.
terms
of self-control ,caO'pefatloll all d
g f o u f 5 - d e c i ~
sionmaking:forexample home economics:and
physical education. .. -
We were interested primarily in the effeet of
music on
their
social relationships; their attitudés
to teachers
and
eaeh other, theír behaviour in school.
A te rmof musical activities .had
alreadytaken
p,laee
with the hoped c º n s e q u ~ J 1 G e .()J redl1cin91he
~ - ' n o v e l t y effeet of
the aetivity
and the new teaeher.
--,
Our procedurewasto ask theregülaI'-feacners
to
observe sessions of musie and the other-than
music
.'s.essions(<<l\;lusieu
and
~ O t h e r l l }
and assess .
the children
on
Gooperation wíth
eachother,
with .
thestaff and to estimate the appanint satisfaction
The best
and
worst
pupils respond
differently:
the least able gaining mosto
Figure 2
GROUP ONE
600 ~ - - - - - - . . . . :
lfCItT
-::r-
EEst
~ o o
00
300
We a r e s t i l l ~ o r k i n g
on ne'wand
appropriate
,statistical measures to make sense of this, though
we are fairly certain that varied practice makes a
positive difference. The research continues
..
:·2.: Music with childrenwíth.behavioral problems
.
....
.....
w€ w e r e c . . ~ n c e r D e 9 . childr§ln incsPE?cjal
ib l
Ob
Ir. ter_c:
4'
..
tbey appeared to display. Thereweresix djfferent
100
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groups. Here is
the
pattern
of
response in
terms
of positive
ar negative effects.
Music
appears
to
make a positive difference.
3
Perceptions of pupil behaviour
Wheo ~ i e s
=
posítive lcores
6Q
10
20
The developmental spiral
In 1986
the publ ication
of the article
by Swan
wick
and Tillman, The Sequence
of Musical
Deve
lopment: A
Si.udy
of
Children s Composition, marked
the first systematíc attempt in Britain to map out
th9
musical development of
chíldren
(British
Journal
of
Musíc
Edt:r:ation
3.3.
Nov.
1986).
It
also hi::ippens to be the first developmental
study to focus on the compositions
of
children or
scnool age 2 3 a major source
Clf
data, as can be
seen in the comprehensive
review of the literature
by Hargreave:::
(1986).
Since then there has been consíderable
interest
in thís accodnt
af
the development
of
children s
mllsical
understanding and
versions
have appeared
in
various
languages, including Polish and Japanese.
In
Britain and elsewhere.
attention
-hasfocussed
on
the
music curriculum implications of the model:
for example. the Dutch have invested research
jnto
its potential for music
education in
mary
schools and the
Arts
Propel in
the
Usa has
~ , ( r o d u c e d
the ideas to
their prcject
colleagues in
Pittsburgh,
with
special reference
to
the creatíon
of assessment criteria. Several generations of
students
in
teacher
education have
reviewed the
theory
and
<I
number
of
college
and
university
student dissertations
have explored some
of its
possibilities.
Teachers have
frequently
expressed a
shock of recognitíon when confronted
with the
model.
The
theoretical
basis was
first
declared in a
public ecture. The
Arts in·
Education: Dreaming or
Wide Awake?, delivered on 4 November,
1982
and
subsequently published in 1983 by
the University
of
London
Institute of
Education. In
this
paper
i
argued
that
the
essential elements of artistic
enga
gement are mastery,
imitatioflancIiffiaginative_play
anel -thãi:
th ese
psychological processes have corres
ponding
artistic elements, namely the
handling and
perception
of sensory materiais, expressiv-e cha
~ t e r
and structure. The thesis is
amplified
in
lsic Mind and Education (Swanwiek, 1988).
Bet.yeen 1981 and
1985 we collected
campos
tions
mainly from children aged 3 to 11 years. These
children were pupils in three london
schools and
came
from
many
different ethnic
and
cultural
groups, including Asian, West Indian. African. Nor
thern
and Southern European backgrounds.
They ali had regular cJass
muslc
essons
with
one of the researchers and during
this time
each
child was
given
opportunities to
make
music
in a
variety of
ways in a rough sequence
of
íncreasing
complexity.
Their musical utterances
were
recorded
nine
times
each year. yielding 745 compositions
from
48
children Qver
four
years.
We
were
then looking
not
only
at
a cross-section
of
children
of different
ages, but in some cases, at
a longitudinal spectrum
of compositions from
the
same children over a long period of
time,
in some
cases up
to
four years.
The central question
was:
could
the compositions
be grouped into a
coherent framework?
As the
data began
to
unfold
it
became possible to develop
and
refire
the
theoretical
model. Basically, and we
were
able to organise the compositions into the
three previously ídentifíed
main
elements
of
artistic
experience; materiais. expression
and form, pius
one other, the component
of
«values». However.
i t
beca me necessary
to
be
more specific and
detailed
and each of these leveis came
to
be seen as com·
prising
a
polarity between assimilatory
and accom
modating tendencies.
On the left
síde is the internai
individual
motivation
of children: the exploration
of
the sensory qualities of sound; personal expressi
veness; structural speculation;
Gommitment
to the
symbolic significance of
musico On the
right
side
is
the public
domain:
skill mastery;
the conventions
of the musical vernacular;
idiomatic
authenticity:
the
systematic
extension
of
musical
possibilities.
Visual
representation therefore íequired
tiNO
dimen
sions.
that
of aspiraI. or
perhaps
more
accurately,
a helix.
Figure 4 *
MUSICAL DEVELOPMEr..i
(15".)
META
COGNmON
(10-15)
IMAGINATIVE.
PLAY
(4-9)
IM1TATlON
(0-4)
MASTERY
VALUE
[ FORM.
l
EXPRESSION
TOWARDS SOCIAL SHARING
•
WCl1 wick
a nd
illman - 985
5
I
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The main characteris1ics
of
these developmental
modes are here very
briefly
restated, along
with
the
age-leveis
of
our sample at that time. For an
adequate account consuit
Swanwick
and Tillman
1986) or Swanwick (1989).
Sensory: Up
to
about
the
age
of
three. young
children are responsive to the impressiveness of
sound,
particularly
timbre and
dynamic
leveis. There
is
a
great
deal
of
exper;mentation
with
and explo
ration
of
musical ínstrurnents and vocal sound,
Manipulative:
Childreil are
acquiring
techniques
involved in handling
instruments,
organising regular
pulse and using technica devices suggested by
the
physicaJ structure and layout
of
available instru
ments. The manipulat ve mode is
most
apparent in
the compositions
of
chHdren around the age
of
four
and five.
Personal expressiwmess :
Direct
personal
expression appears
firstiy
and
most
evidently in sung
music at four to
six
years,
becoming particufarly
apparent
In
the exploit8tion
of
changes
of
speed
and loudness leveis.
lhe
vernacular: Chi't.:-en
gravitate
towards esta
general musical conventions. Phrases tend
J fali into standard
tvv0. four
or eight bar units
with metrical
organisation. The vernacular mode
begins to appear at aro:md the age
of five
but is
more
clearly establish::,d
at
seven or eight,
Figure 5
SW F J ~ W ] C K í T I L L M N DATA
AG,
. t /5
l:(AD(5Z%)---.
/
=====---,
"
,t.:
1
-
f
I
j
V
-
II
I I
LI
I I I,:
,;
'IUlJ-T<en>(lX)
~ n : . : u , , )
lhe
.speculative: Repetition of patterns
is
brokell
by
imaginative deviations. Surprises occur
as chil
dren explore
structural possibilities,
looking to
contrast
or vary established musical ideas, Specu
lative compositions can sometimes be found earlier,
but
between
the
ages of nine and
11
is
:nost
frequento
lhe idiomatic: Around the ages
of
'13-14. structu
,ai surprises become more
firmly
Integrated into
recognisable
styles
and
contrast
and variation ':lre
handled
on
the
basis
of
emulated models :md
chosen
stylistic
practices,
The
symbolic:
Particular pieces
of
music,
aften
certain turns
of
phrase
or an
harmonic progression
become
significant
for
an
individual. There is a
growing consciousness
of music s affective power
and a tendency
to reflect
on the experience and to
communicate something
of these
responses to
others.
The
age
of
about 15 and beyond seems
optimum.
The
systematic: Music becomes an important
part of a vaiue system and is conceptualised in ways
which may be historical, musicological, psycholo
gical ar philosophica .
Musical compositions
may
be based on sets
of newly
generated musical ma·
teriaís.
We found encouraging and
sympathetic
reso
nances in the
literature,
including
work
by Moog
(1976). Gardner (1973), Ross (1984) and Buntinç;
(1977),
Figure 5 shows the
emergent
modes
of
devE)
lopment at
four
age-leveis
on
the partern
of
analysis
gíven
;n
the spiral (Swanwick and Tillman. 19851,
There are
questions
about the sample
of
chiiclre:1:
for
instance. could these findings be repeated in
anotner
cultural
setting?
There
were worries
to
about the
age-relatedaspect
of the spiral, though
we
had always acknowledged
that different
environ
ments would
inevitabiy
produce
different
rates
of
development and
that individuais would
in any case
djffer
f romothers.
AGE:
10 11
T . r n ( 4 Z ) - . ~
L 3' )V
- ~ .
J - . . - I . . . . . I . - ~ ~ ( t 9 % )
"
~ ~ 5 ~
iJ
Ii illiB
1 ..m<5a%}-'
.sp.e.,( 500 r
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Our
main
claim
was
that the sequential order
may be invariant. For
these
and
other
reasons,
replication
of
the original study became necessary
what follows
:s
an
account of an investigation
n a
different
cultural
setting. namely
Cyprus. This
data became available thanks
to
Michael Stavrides.
who is the Music Inspector for the island and
currently a resear::::h student with the
writer.
The
Cyprus
Data
The music curricululrl
In Cyprus
schools
ís
in
the
process of positive
development with
specific
encouragement beíng given to teachers to include
composing in the classroom. This
work
is still
fairly
new
and appears somewhat patchy, unsupported
as
lt is by established
pfâctíces
such
as those
pro
moted in Britain
by
various
curriculum
development
projects and endorsed by
the
assessment requíre·
ments of the GCSE. However a number of curricu
lum
activities
have been devised in Cyprus wíth
composing
as
a
r e a t i v e ~ v new but essential
element.
It
is possible to draw
0;1 this work to assist
in repli
crucial aspects
of
the Swanwick-Tillman
testingthe 'v'alidlty of the theoretical model
únderpinning the deve Gpmental spiral.
During 1990,
Orla
of the Cyprus
music curriculum
undertakings was
tO
':lsk children in school to
make a piecs of muslcJ.sing «contrasts». We chose
te in\estígate
the Qutco'"es
of
thís
particular
project.
6
G)''"}'R;jS DATA
A 1 ~ E .4/5
AGE 10/11
'-5PlIC(:omr;) .. '
Througn the teachers
we
collected recordings from
several primary and secondary schools,
over 600
items
in alI. From these were selected
at
random
28 compositions the only
sortíng rule being
that
there
should be seven
items
from each
of four
age
groups:
4/5; 7/8;
10/11; 14(15. These 28
items
were then assembled in random arder
on
one
cassette
tape.
We played a taped sample
of 28
compositions
was to eight judges in Britain, primary and secon
dary
music
teachers
on In-Service courses in
my
Department. They
were flrst
gíven
time
to absorb
and discuss the categories
of
the developmental
spíral. These
were
then
to
be used
to
assess the
Cyprus compositions; each was
to
be placed in a
category.
From our findings we can therefore confidentiy
assume that the sequence of developmentaJ leveis
we originally
mapped
is
reasonably accurate and
that the
averall theoreticaJ
framework
has consi
derable predictive power.
Figure 6 shows the proportion
of the 196
jud
gments made in each
of
the spiraJ categories at
each age leveI. It can be seen that the spiral modes
arríve on cue and exactly in the predicted sequence.
The Sensory,
Manipulative
and PersonaJ Expression
leveis are already in place by age
4/5;
by age
7/8
the Vernacular is established;
by 10/11
the Specu
lative appears; and compositions at age 14/15
shovv
the first emergence of the Symboiic mode.
AGE
i .
l l { { ~
1
l'KP.S(33%)-- 'I,-.
'-Vll:m'I(21 }
AGE 14/15
rYE m{8X)
1DI0000031X)-
8/16/2019 The Importance of Research for Music Education
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-importance-of-research-for-music-education 6/6
ifferences between the
dara
There is one i m p o r t a i : ~ difference
between
these
~ ~ w
sets of data. The difference is predicted by
,3wanwíck and Tillman: « Ne suspect that, if children
are in an
environment
'Nhere
t h e r e ~
are
musical
encounters,
then
this
s'equence may be followed
more quickly. The opposite may also, unfortunately,
be true' in an impove;'ished environment, deve
opment is likely to be mínimal, arrested (Swanwick
and
Tillman,
1986,
p.
338).
The children in the Cyprus schools are certainly
not
in an impoverished musical environment but
there
is unquestionably :ess
of
a
tradítion
of com
posing
in the classroom.
We
were also assessing
compositions from several Cyprus
schools
where
chíldren
had different teachers, unlike the earlier
data from the UK where one teacher was systema
tically engaged in developing a rich musical pro
gramme during the four·year period of the research.
We might therefore expact more
variability
in the
Cyprus compositions afíd
possible lower
leveis of
achievement as assessed by the criteria. For exam
among
the
UK
childr8fl
we
could
anticipate more
:onfidence with the musical vernacular and greater
fluency in structural speculation with a greater dis
persion of 'lhe
100ver
criterion leveis in the higher
age groups among the Cyprus sample. An inspection
of
the
data suggests tlli ) may be so.
From OUi' an2!ysis
Wê-.
can assume that, althaugh
tne sequential arder d
development
may be iden
tical,
the compositions Jf the UK children appear
general y
to be ~ ' n o r e advancec than
those
of thelr
Cyprus peers.
Conclusion
This evidence strOrlf:HY supports the sequence of
the original musi..:; developmental map and justifies
theprojections made fr)r the o der age group. Fur
thermore, in the
light 8f
the differences between
the
twosamples
i t is
tempting
provísionally
to
adop t the hypothesis that music education in
schools
s
able to make a diHc:ence to the musical deve
lopment or chilc-en.
However.
theexperiment was
not designed to test this and
i t
would be unwise
to rely onthese "esults to
support what
would be,
for
music educ2i"Drs, ::
attractive
thesis.
Further
work
is indicated. A comment by one
of
the
UK
teach8r-judges
was
made to the effect
that the
criterio'l
state;nents would be an
impro
vement on some currr:;nt practices in
assessing
children's compositions
for
tne GCSE. There is
indeed a need i',i1d SOí"e. potentia here for deve
loping more reliable, more musically valid and cross
-cultural assessment techniques and the necessity
of training judges responsible for the assessment
of musical compositions. Similar criteria may be
he!pful in the assessment of performances.
In the Music department of the Institute of Edu
cation, London University, a number of researcners
at
this
time are investigating ways in which people
respond to music
as
audlence-listeners. There a.rE'
several
further
questions relating
to
developmental
model, one
of
which
is
whether
or not
the same sequential order is evident in the listening
mode
and another the extent to which audiencE
listening may influence composing. One thing
certain: whenever the sequential map is tabled
discussion
it
become possible
to
think in a more
focussed way about musical experience, musical
development, the articulation of a progressive musir
curriculum, pupi! assessment and the psycholog.,
of musical development.
In the 16th century. Frances Bacon said,
'we,
are more
likely to
reach the
truth
through erro,
than through confusion'. What ! ask
of
myse f and
my
research
students
is
that error
should
expressed In a
clear
and lively fashion and be th\:!
more easily recognised for what
it
is because
l t 2
stripped of unnecessary jargon. The student '/vho
has been
through
the
fire
of research may
not
alway",
produce earth-shattering findings, but the student is
helped by the experience and usual[y loaks
at
ths
world rather
differently,
at
their
own teaching ano
the
teaching
of
other people differently, at students
and
institutions
differently because there has ~ e n
systernatic enquiry. ihe researcher is alvvays
tr.e
first of his r her own rindings.
References
BUNTING, R.. (1977).
«The
Common Language of Musico.
Music
in the Secondary School Curriculum. Working
Paper 6. Sehools Counell. York University.
GARDNER, H., (1973]. The Al1s and Human Deveiopment.
New
York: Wiley.
HARGREAVES, D. J. (1936). «Developmentaí Psychoiogy and
Musie Edueationn, Psycnology of Music, 14 (2). 33-96.
ivlOOG, H..
(1976).1he
Musical Experience of tne ?re·Scnool
ChHd.
(Translated by Claudia Ciarke]
London:
Scnott.
Hrst published in Germany, 1963.
ROSS. Í\iÍ., (1984). The Aesthetíc Impulse. Oxrord: Pergamon
Press.
SWANWICK, K., (1983), The Atts in Education: Dreaming ar
Wide
Awake?
Special Professorial Lecture. London Uni
versity Institute of Education.
SWANWICK. K. & TiLLMAN. J., (1986). «The Sequence of Musical
Development., British Joumal of Music Education. Voi.
3. No. 3. November 1986. Cambridge University Press.
SWANWICK. K.. 11988), Music. Mind and Educationll. London:
Routledge.
Chairperson of the MDsi-c Depal1ment of the London Universlty Institute of Education
No Boletim 68. p á ~ J s 16-18 está publicada no artigo ara
um
modelo da criatividade musical nas crianças de June Tillman,
a
espiral de desenvolvimento musical. trad. em português. .
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