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HKS740CaseNumber1982.0

ThiscasewaswrittenbyDavidW.Giles,AssistantDirector,ProgramonCrisisLeadership,forDrArnoldM.Howitt,AdjunctLecturerinPublicPolicyandExecutiveDirectoroftheAshCenterforDemocraticGovernanceandInnovation,HarvardKennedySchool,andHermanB.“Dutch”Leonard,GeorgeF.Baker,Jr.ProfessorofPublicManagement,HarvardKennedySchool,andEliotI.SniderandFamilyProfessorofBusinessAdministration,HarvardBusinessSchool.FundsforcasedevelopmentwereprovidedbytheMassachusettsNationalGuardinsupportoftheHarvardKennedySchool’sGeneralandFlagOfficerHomelandSecurityExecutiveSeminar.HKScasesaredevelopedsolelyasthebasisforclassdiscussion.Casesarenotintendedtoserveasendorsements,sourcesofprimarydata,orillustrationsofeffectiveorineffectivemanagement.

Copyright©2013PresidentandFellowsofHarvardCollege.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,revised,translated,storedinaretrievalsystem,usedinaspreadsheet,ortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeanswithouttheexpresswrittenconsentoftheCaseProgram.Forordersandcopyrightpermissioninformation,pleasevisitourwebsiteathttp://www.ksgcase.harvard.edu/orsendawrittenrequesttoCaseProgram,JohnF.KennedySchoolofGovernment,HarvardUniversity,79JohnF.KennedyStreet,Cambridge,MA02138.

TheDeepwaterHorizonOilSpill:ThePoliticsofCrisisResponse(B)

Introduction

AstheyworkedtobringgreatercohesiontotheDeepwaterHorizonresponse,NationalIncidentCommander

ThadAllenandhistwotopadvisors–RearAdmiralPeterNeffengerandJulietteKayyem,AssistantSecretaryfor

IntergovernmentalAffairsattheDepartmentofHomelandSecurity(DHS)–expendedconsiderableenergytrying

tocoordinatethevastfederalinteragency.ButimprovingcollaborationwithintheObamaadministrationwasjust

onepieceofthepuzzle.Inaddition,theyhadtocontendwithahostofelectedofficialsfromacrosstheGulfCoast

whostood,asonelocalleaderputit,atthevery“epicenter”ofthecrisis.WithAprilturningintoMayandoilcon‐

tinuingtoleakunabatedintotheGulf,Allen’steamwouldneedtofigureouthowtocoordinateresponsestrate‐

gieswiththesegovernors,parishpresidents,mayors,andcityandcountycouncilmembers.1Speakingtothegrim

moodthatwouldcomplicatefederalauthorities’outreachtotheirstateandlocalcounterpartsoverthenextsev‐

eralmonths,RearAdmiralNeffengerobserved,“Allthehappytalkattheearlystages[ofaresponse]goesaway

prettyfastwhenreal,long‐termeffectsstarttohit….Thereisthisgeneralsenseofdespairthatsetsin.”2(See

Exhibits1and2,respectively,forachronologyofeventsandalistofkeyactorsinthiscase.SeeExhibit3foralist

ofacronyms.)

CompetingLegalRegimes:OPAvs.Stafford

FollowingthediscoveryofoilleakingfromtheMacondoWellonSaturday,April24,AssistantSecretary

KayyemtraveledtotheGulfCoasttomeetwiththeregion’sgovernors.Withindaysofherarrival,anadditional

leakatthewellsitewasidentified;andonThursday,April29,thefederalgovernmentelevatedtheincidenttoa

SpillofNationalSignificance(SONS)andestablishedaNationalIncidentCommand(NIC)tocoordinateresponse

efforts.Adaylater,PresidentObamasentseniormembersofhisadministration–includingHomelandSecurity

SecretaryJanetNapolitano,InteriorSecretaryKenSalazar,EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)Administrator

LisaJackson,andtheDirectoroftheWhiteHouseOfficeofEnergyandClimateChange,CarolBrowner–tojoin

1Louisianaispoliticallysub‐dividedintoparishes,theroughequivalentofcountiesinotherstates.

2TelephoneinterviewwithPeterNeffenger,August24,2011.Unlessnoted,subsequentquotationsfromandattributionstoNeffengerarefromthisinterview.

HKSCaseProgram 2of26 CaseNumber1982.0

KayyemandotherfederalofficialsintheGulf.Theretheymetface‐to‐facewithanincreasinglyanxioussetofstate

andlocalleaders.3

Bythen,theGulfStateshadstartedtotakeemergencyresponsemeasuresoftheirown.OnApril29,withoil

slicksadvancingtowithinjustthreemilesofthecoast,GovernorBobbyJindalhaddeclaredaStateofEmergency

forLouisiana.Hehadalsobegunsubmittingrequeststofederalagenciesforvarioustypesofresourcesandaid,

includingsupportforthefishermenandcoastalbusinessmenwhofacedsubstantiallossesduetothespill.Follow‐

ingJindal’slead,GovernorsBobRileyofAlabama,CharlieCristofFlorida,andHaleyBarbourofMississippihad

declaredtheirownStatesofEmergencyadaylater.4

Forthestatestohavereceivedextensivefederalassistance,theObamaadministrationwouldhavehadtoin‐

voketheRobertT.StaffordDisasterReliefandEmergencyAssistanceAct(StaffordAct).5Butitinsteadproceeded

toorganizetheDeepwaterHorizonresponsepursuanttoanotherfederallaw:theOilPollutionActof1990(OPA),

which–alongwiththecorrespondingNationalOilandHazardousSubstancesPollutionContingencyPlan(NCP)–

providedthelegalauthorityandgeneralframeworkformanagingresponsestomajoroilspills.6

Fromtheverystartofthecrisis,however,localandstateleadershadadifficulttimeacceptingOPAoverStaf‐

ford.Partoftheirpreferenceforthelatterstemmedfromsimplefamiliarity:hurricanespummeltheGulfCoaston

aregularbasis,andofficialsintheregiongenerallyadheretotheStaffordActwhenrespondingtotheseandother

majoremergencies.Importantly,thelawallowsstatestoretaincontroloftheresponse,evenastheybenefitfrom

considerablefederalaid.

3HeidiAvery,“TheOngoingAdministration‐WideResponsetotheDeepwaterBPOilSpill,”TheWhiteHouseBlog,updatedMay25,2010,availableathttp://www.whitehouse.gov/blog/2010/05/05/ongoing‐administration‐wide‐response‐deepwater‐bp‐oil‐spill,[accessedJanuary16,2013];andJulietteKayyem,TestimonytotheUnitedStatesSenateCommitteeonHomelandSecu‐rityandGovernmentalAffairsSubcommitteeonState,LocalandPrivateSectorPreparednessandIntegration,DeepImpact:AssessingtheEffectsoftheDeepwaterHorizonOilSpillonStates,LocalitiesandthePrivateSector,June10,2010,availableathttp://www.hsgac.senate.gov/subcommittees/disaster‐recovery‐and‐intergovernmental‐affairs/hearings/deep‐impact‐assessing‐the‐effects‐of‐the‐deepwater‐horizon‐oil‐spill‐on‐states‐localities‐and‐the‐private‐sector,[accessedJanuary15,2013].4NationalCommissionontheBPDeepwaterHorizonOilSpillandOffshoreDrilling,DeepWater:TheGulfOilDisasterandtheFutureofOffshoreDrilling;ReporttothePresident,January2011;andCampbellRobertson,“WhiteHouseTakesaBiggerRoleintheOilSpillCleanup,”NewYorkTimes,April29,2010.ForadetailedlistingofrequestsGovernorJindalsubmittedtofederalagencies,see:MarkCooper,TestimonytotheUnitedStatesSenateCommitteeonHomelandSecurityandGovernmentalAffairsSubcommitteeonState,Local,andPrivateSectorPreparednessandIntegration,DeepImpact:AssessingtheEffectsoftheDeepwaterHorizonOilSpillonStates,LocalitiesandthePrivateSector,June10,2010,availableathttp://www.hsgac.senate.gov/subcommittees/disaster‐recovery‐and‐intergovernmental‐affairs/hearings/deep‐impact‐assessing‐the‐effects‐of‐the‐deepwater‐horizon‐oil‐spill‐on‐states‐localities‐and‐the‐private‐sector,[accessedJanuary17,2013].5ForanoverviewoftheStaffordActdeclarationprocess,see:FederalEmergencyManagementAgency(FEMA),TheDeclara‐tionProcess,updatedJune13,2012,availableathttp://www.fema.gov/declaration‐process,[accessedJanuary16,2013].6FormoreonOPAandtheNCP,see:U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency,NationalOilandHazardousSubstancesPollutionContingencyPlanOverview,2011,availableathttp://www.epa.gov/osweroe1/content/lawsregs/ncpover.htm,[accessedJanu‐ary19,2012].


MarkCooper,DirectoroftheLouisianaGovernor’sOfficeofHomelandSecurityandEmergencyPreparedness

atthetimeofthespill(andsubsequentlySeniorDirectorforEmergencyManagementatWalmartStores,Inc.),7

explainedthebottom‐upnatureofatypicalStaffordresponse:

Theresponseisatthelocallevel.Andthenwhenthelocalscan’thandleit,itgoestothe

state.Thestateprovidessupport,andwhenitexceeds[thestate’s]capacity,theygoto

thefederalgovernment….[But]thecenteroftheearthwouldn’tbetheunifiedarea

command;itwouldbeatthelocallevel.8

YetwiththefederalgovernmentdecliningtoissueaStafforddeclaration,stateandlocalauthoritiesfacedan

entirelyunfamiliarscenario–onethatleftthemfeelingalienatedfromthefederally‐directedresponsebeginning

totakeshapeintheGulf.AsCoopersaid,“Thelocalsfeltliketheyhadnorole,really.Anditwastheircoastlines

andparishesthatwerebeingimpacted!”

Louisiana’sLafourcheParish,locatedalongthestate’ssoutheasterncoast,wasoneofthemanylocaljurisdic‐

tionsthatfounditswaterways,beaches,andmarshesunderdirectthreatfromtheencroachingoil.(SeeExhibit4

foramapofLouisiana,indicatingthelocationofLafourche.)Theparish,likemuchoftherestoftheGulfCoast,

washeavilyreliantontheoilandfishingindustries,andtheDeepwaterHorizonspillthreateneditsresidents’very

wayoflife.AsBrennanMatherne,PublicInformationOfficerforLafourche,vividlyputitintheearlydaysofthe

crisis,“IfyoudriveupHighway1uptoLockport,you’llseefishermenliningthebayouthewholeway….There’re

[sic]thousandsofpeopleherewhomaketheirlivingoffoysters,shrimp,andfish.Oilgoingupthebayouwouldn’t

begoodforanyofus.”9

Movingtodefendtheirshoreline,parishleadersinitiallyorganizedtheirresponsearoundthebottom‐upprin‐

ciplesofStafford,justastheyhaddonecountlesstimesinthepast.EspeciallyconcernedthatbreachesalongLa‐

fourche’scoastlinewouldallowoiltowashintoenvironmentallyfragilemarshes,theybroughtintheirown

equipmenttofillinbreaksalongtheshore.Whenthateffortfailed,LafourcheParishPresidentCharlotteRandolph

recounted,“Wedidaswenormallydoduringanemergencyandcalledinstateandnationalresourcesinorderto

assistus.”10ItwasthenthattheywerefullyconfrontedbytherealitiesofOPA,discoveringthatthefederalgov‐

ernmentwasforallintentsandpurposesincontroloftheentireresponse–includingresourcesandmoney.

“That,”Randolphdeclared,“wasforeigntous.”

7CooperlefthispostwiththeStateofLouisianaforWalmartStores,Inc.inthesummerof2011.

8TelephoneinterviewwithMarkCooper,August10,2011.Unlessnoted,subsequentquotationsfromandattributionstoCoo‐perarefromthisinterview.9QuotedinBillSasser,“LouisianaLawmakers:BPCan’tHandleGulfOilSpillCleanupAnymore,”ChristianScienceMonitor,May11,2010.10TelephoneinterviewwithCharlotteRandolph,November17,2011.Unlessnoted,subsequentquotationsfromandattribu‐

tionstoRandolpharefromthisinterview.


Addingtotheirfrustrations,localandstateofficialsalsodeterminedthatOPAentailedexcruciatinglyslowbu‐

reaucraticprocedures.Louisiana’sMarkCoopernotedthatthis,too,stoodinsharpcontrasttohisstate’sexperi‐

encewithStafford‐declaredemergencies.HepointedoutthatduringHurricanesGustavandIkein2008,theFed‐

eralEmergencyManagementAgency(FEMA)hadworkedcloselywiththestatetoexpediteapprovalsandquickly

answerquestions(amarkedimprovementinrelationssincethemuchmalignedresponsetoHurricaneKatrinajust

threeyearsearlier).ButduringDeepwaterHorizon,Coopercontinued,stateandlocalemergencymanagement

officialshadtoworkwithnumerousfederalentitieswithwhichtheypreviouslyhadlittleinteraction.Amongother

things,thismeantthattheysuddenlyhadtofigureouthowtoadjusttoandnavigateeachagency’sadministrative

proceduresandculture.AsCharlotteRandolphofLafourcheParishobserved,

Itwasaprolongedprocesshavingtogothroughalltherulesandregulations[ofOPA

andtheNCP].Youknow,inanemergencysituation,[sometimes]youreactandfixthe

problemafterthefact.Inthissituation,wehadtofollowallofEPA’sguidelines,the

CleanWaterAct;wehadtofollowalltheCoastGuardregulations…Itwasjustone

regulationafteranother!11

ObamaAdministrationofficials,however,remainedconvincedthatinvokingOPAmadeenormoussense.Al‐

thoughmindfulofthelocalandstateofficials’frustrations,NationalIncidentCommanderThadAllendeclaredthat

“unequivocally”OPAandtheNCPprovideda“soundframeworkandallowedforneededdiscretionandfreedomof

actiontoaddresscontingenciesthatarose.”12Forherpart,AssistantSecretaryJulietteKayyemsummedupthe

advantagesofOPAinthreewords:“Thepolluterpays.”13OPA,sheclarified,requiresthespill’sresponsibleparty

(BPinthecaseoftheDeepwaterHorizonleaks)tocoverallclean‐upcosts–andpayforupto$75millioninre‐

lateddamages.Andonthatpoint,representativesofstateandlocalgovernmentagreedwiththeirfederalcoun‐

terparts.“TherewerecertainpartsofOPAthatIthinkwerebeneficial,”Cooperadmitted,“[suchas]thefactthat

theresponsiblepartywasgoingtobe100%liableforthecostoftheresponse.”

YeteventheNIC’sownleadersacknowledgedthatOPA,whichCongresshadpassedin1990inthewakeofthe

ExxonValdezoilspill,wasbynomeansaperfectfitfortheDeepwaterHorizonresponse.“Justtotellyouhowlim‐

iteditwas,[OPA]dealtwithsurfaceoil,notwithwhatweweredealingwithat5,000feetundertheocean,”

Kayyemexplained.Moreover,thelawwasbasedonthepremisethatthespillwouldinvolveavesselreleasinga

11RandolphreferredspecificallytoaninitiativeimplementedbyBPandfederalauthorities–theVesselsofOpportunitypro‐

gram–whichpaidlocalresidents,particularlyfishermenwhohadlostworkasaresultofthespill,tohelpskimoilfromthewaterandassistinotherwayswiththeclean‐up.ButaccordingtoRandolph,“InorderfortheCoastGuardtoassignthemtotheseprojects,theyhadtogothrougharigorousprocessofequippingtheirboatswiththeproperlifesavingdevices,andtheyhadtosecuretheproperlicensesandthingslikethat–whenwecouldhavejustsentthemoutandsaid‘we’resorry’later.”12ThadW.Allen,NationalIncidentCommander’sReport:MC252DeepwaterHorizon,2010,availableat

http://www.nrt.org/production/NRT/NRTWeb.nsf/AllAttachmentsByTitle/SA‐1065NICReport/$File/Binder1.pdf?OpenElement,[accessedJanuary19,2012].13PresentationbyJulietteKayyem,March23,2011,HarvardBusinessSchool,Boston,MA.Unlessnoted,subsequentquota‐

tionsfromandattributionstoKayyemareeitherfromthispresentation;anotherpresentationMs.KayyemmadeonApril14atHarvardKennedySchool,Cambridge,MA;oraninterviewbytheauthorwithMs.KayyemonMay18,2011.


fixedamountofoilintothewater,asopposedtothecontinuousleakingthatoccurredfollowingthesinkingofthe

DeepwaterHorizon.Andfromapoliticalperspective,Kayyemadded,“Wehadalwaysthoughtthatitwouldbea

one‐statespill”–therebyinvolvingalimitedsetofelectedofficialsandjurisdictions.

KayyemandAllenstressedoneotherlimitationtoorganizingtheresponseunderOPA:the9/11terroristat‐

tacksandHurricaneKatrina,theysaid,hadradicallyreshapedthepublic’sexpectationsregardingthelevelofgov‐

ernmentinvolvementindisasterresponseandtheformsofaiditshouldprovide;butOPA,writtenyearsbefore

eitherevent,camenowhereclosetomeetingthoseexpectations.AsAllenputit,

Thereisanevolution,devolution,reinventing,whateveryouwant,ofthesocialcontract

inthiscountry[ofwhatcitizens]expectwhenoneofthesethingsoccur….Thepublic

expectsawholeofgovernmentresponse.[Buttheseresponses]cannotbeexecutedto

thesamedegreethatmilitaryoperationsaredone….I’mtellingyou,there’sadiscon‐

nectthere!”14

Kayyemadded:“[OPA’s]notaboutdiversifyingLouisiana’seconomy…It’snotaboutthelong‐termrehabilita‐

tionoftheGulf.It’snotaboutthementalhealthofthepeopleintheGulf.Thelawdidnoteventhinkofanyof

that.”Instead,shesaid,itdealtstrictlywiththemechanisms,protocols,andfundingneededtobringtheimmedi‐

atecrisis(thespill)toanend.

Staffordprovisions,meanwhile,weremuchmoreinlinewiththegrowingexpectationsoftheAmericanpub‐

lic;andthus,LafourcheParishPresidentCharlotteRandolphrecalled,localofficialsurgedtheObamaadministra‐

tiontoinvokethelaw.AccordingtoJosephAldy,SpecialAssistanttothePresidentforEnergyandEnvironment,

theirrequestsdidnot,infact,fallondeafears.TheObamaadministration,hesaid,pursuedacompromiseofsorts,

proposingthatCongressprovideStafford‐likeaid,suchasunemploymentassistance,whileallowingfederal

authoritiestocontinueorganizingtheirresponseunderOPA–therebykeepingBPaccountableforcompensation

andclean‐upcosts.15AsAldyputit,“WewantedStafford‐likeauthorities,withouttheStaffordAct,becauseaStaf‐

fordActdeclarationcouldletBPoffthehookforcompensationofdamagesfromthespill.”16

14InterviewwithThadAllen,September15,2011.Unlessnoted,subsequentquotationsfromandattributionstoAllenarefrom

thisinterview.15FordetailsonthelegislativepackagesubmittedbytheObamaadministration,see:OfficeofthePressSecretary,TheWhite

House,FactSheet:DeepwaterHorizonOilSpillLegislativePackage,May12,2010,availableathttp://www.whitehouse.gov/the‐press‐office/fact‐sheet‐deepwater‐horizon‐oil‐spill‐legislative‐package,[accessedApril16,2012].16InterviewwithJosephAldy,August9,2011.Unlessnoted,subsequentquotationsfromandattributionstoAldyarefromthis

interview.


Congresseventuallyapprovedsomeadditionalassistance.Allthesame,itwouldcomenowhereclosetofulfill‐

ingthehopesofelectedofficialsfromacrosstheGulf,whoweregrowingincreasinglyanxiousaboutthespill’sef‐

fectontheirconstituents’waysoflife.17

TheGovernors

OnSunday,May2,SecretariesNapolitanoandSalazarhostedwhatwastobecomeacornerstoneofthere‐

sponse–aconferencecallinvolvingseniorfederalofficials,thegovernorsoftheGulfStates,andtheirchiefadvi‐

sors.Withindays,theseso‐called“Governors’Calls”hadbecomeadailyevent,takingplaceeverymorningat

9:15.18

NationalIncidentCommanderThadAllenparticipatedinthefirstseveralcalls.Butdeterminingthattheywere

not“thebestuse”ofhistime,giventhattheyentailedlisteningtoalitanyofcomplaintsfromthegovernors,he

quicklyceasedparticipating.“Youwouldsittherefor30or40minutesandhavepeoplejustscreamingonthe

phone,”heremembered.

Still,thecallshadimportantvaluefortheadministration,particularlyinapoliticalsense.Withthe2010mid‐

termcongressionalelectionsjustaroundthecorner,andgiventhewidespreadbeliefthatseveralGulfgovernors

(allRepublicans)plannedtorunforpresidentin2012,theWhiteHousehopedtoavoidmajorconflictsoverthe

managementoftheDeepwaterHorizonresponse.Consequently,itaskedtheNICtocontinueengagingthegover‐

norsthroughthecalls.“Theydidn’twanttobecomebestfriendswiththesefolks,”Allenobserved,“butthey

wantedtomakesuretheywereminimizinganypotentialproblemsandunderstoodifsomethingwasgoingtobe‐

comeapoliticalfirestorm.”

AllenassignedhistoptwodeputiesattheNIC,RearAdmiralPeterNeffengerandAssistantSecretaryJuliette

Kayyem(whomAllenhaddesignatedashischiefpoliticaladvisorduringtheresponse),tohelpmoderatethecalls.

ParticipatingineveryoneofthealmostonehundredGovernors’Callsthattookplacethroughouttheremainderof

thecrisis,NeffengerandKayyemwouldwalkthroughtheagendaatthestartofeachmorning’sdiscussionbefore

askingvarioussubjectmatterexpertstoprovideupdates.(NOAAofficials,forinstance,regularlyreportedon

weatherconditionsintheGulf;EPArepresentativesaddressedseveralenvironmentalissues,suchastheuseof

chemicaldispersantstocombattheoilslicks;andCoastGuardofficersreviewedahostofoperationalconcerns.)

Kayyemcapturedtheimportanceofthedailycall:“[It]wasaspaceinwhichrealconcernswerediscussed….

[Andhaving]thesubjectmatterexpertsparticipatingsortofhelpedcalmsomeofthegovernors’concerns.”Forhis

part,Neffengersaidthatthecallservedasakeymechanismforbothsidestomaintainawarenessandkeep

abreastofdevelopments.“Ithinkthattherewassortofthismutualdesiretobeintheloop,”hereflected,“both

fromtheadministration’ssideandthegovernors.’”

17JosephE.Aldy,“Real‐TimeEconomicAnalysisandPolicyDevelopmentduringtheBPDeepwaterHorizonOilSpill,”Vanderbilt

LawReview64(6),pp.1795‐1817,2011.18Avery,“TheOngoingAdministration‐WideResponsetotheDeepwaterBPOilSpill;”andKayyem,DeepImpact.


TheNIC’stopofficialssoondeterminedthatthecallalsohadadownside,however.AccordingtoNeffenger,

eachmorning’sdiscussiongeneratedawholenewsetofdemands,whichinturncreatedsome“distortion”and

“dysfunction”intheresponsethroughouttheremainderoftheday.Heexplained,

Therewereanumberoftacticaldemandsthatjustcouldn’tbemetinthattimeframe.

Bythetimeyougotoffthephone,organizedthetasking,andfiguredoutwhointhis

massiveresponsewasgoingtoberesponsibleforwhat,awholedayhadgoneby….And

theverynextdayyouwouldhavenothingmoretoreport,except,‘Well,atleastwegot

theissuesprioritized!’19

This,hesaid,ledtosomeveryrealfrustrationsonthepartofthegovernors,whooftenfeltlikenothinghad

beenaccomplished–orthatfederalauthoritieswereignoringtheirconcerns.But,Neffengeremphasized,“You

can’tjustsnapyourfingersandhaveitallworkwhenyou’vegot47,000peopleontheground….Thisisamassive

undertaking,andittakesalotoftimetomovethingsandgetthemgoing.”20

Meanwhile,thecallstookonanaddeddynamicwhentheWhiteHousedecidedtoassignhostingdutiesto

SeniorAdvisortothePresidentValerieJarrett.AssistantSecretaryKayyemrememberedreceivingwordofthear‐

rangement.“Look,thereareprosandconstothatset‐up,”shesaid.“ButtheonerealityisthattheWhiteHouse

wasinvolvedandneededtobeinvolved.ValerieJarrett’sinvolvementisn’tsomethingyouquestion,eventhough

itraisedthelevelofattentiontothecalls.”

Neffengertookaslightlydifferentview.AlthoughagreeingthathavingJarretthostthecallslentthemsignifi‐

cantprestige,heharboredconcernsthatiterasedanyremainingboundariesbetweenthegovernorsandthe

President’sinnercircle.“Onceyou’vecreatedaccessatthesenior‐mostlevels,thenhowdoyouturnitbackoff?”

Neffengerwondered,addingthatdecisionsmadebythepoliticalleadersduringthecallsattimesunderminedthe

incidentcommandstructurethathadbeenestablishedpursuanttoOPAandtheNCP.AsNeffengerputit,“[We]

effectivelycreatedashadowcommandstructurethathadinjectsfromtheveryhighestlevelsbackintothedaily

operationalevents.”

19TheGovernors’Callwas,infact,justoneofthemanyteleconferencestheNIC’sseniorleadershiptookpartinoverthecourse

ofaday.At7:30everymorning,AdmiralAllen,RearAdmiralNeffenger,andAssistantSecretaryKayyemparticipatedinaNa‐tionalIncidentCommandconferencecalltoreviewnewdevelopments.At9:00AM,officialsfromtheNationalIncidentCom‐mandandtheWhiteHousegotonthephonetoprepareforthatday’sGovernors’Call,whichtypicallylastedaboutanhour.Afterthat,seniorfederalofficialsstayedonthelinetodebriefandbegintaskingthemanyissuesraisedbythegovernors.Then,eachafternoon,theNationalIncidentCommandledconferencecallsforlocalofficials,senatorsfromtheaffectedstates,andCoastGuardofficersservingasliaisonstoparishpresidentsandcitymayors.20Indeed,thefederally‐ledresponsetotheDeepwaterHorizoncrisiswasanunprecedentedundertakingintermsofscope,

complexity,andsize.Todealwiththeestimated4.9millionbarrelsofoilthatleakedintotheGulf,theresponseencompassedawidearrayofoperationstakingplaceintheair(anAviationCoordinationCentermanagedtheactionsofapproximately120aircraftprovidingsituationalawarenessonthespreadofthespillandlocationofresources);onthesea(the6,400vesselsin‐volvedintheresponsewere,inthewordsofAdmiralAllen,more“thanwereusedintheD‐DayinvasionofNormandy”);andontheground(Allen,NationalIncidentCommander’sReport).Foradetailedaccountofthemassiveamountofresourcesandper‐sonneldedicatedtoresponseeffortsintheGulf,seeExhibit5.


Butfromthegovernors’perspective,thedailycallwasextremelyvaluable.AccordingtoMarkCooper,then

theDirectoroftheLouisianaGovernor’sOfficeofHomelandSecurityandEmergencyPreparedness,“Itwasadirect

pointofcontactwiththePresident.SoIthinkthatitgavethosegovernorsanopportunitytoexpresstheirhighest

priorities.”Anddespitehisownreservations,Neffengerconceded,“IfIwereagovernor,Iwouldhavelikedit.I

wouldhavebeenonit.”Heidentifiedabroaderbenefitofthecallsaswell:

Theywereexceptionallyhelpfulinunderstandingthepressuresthat[thegovernors]

werefacingfromtheirconstituencies,thepeopleintheirstates.Andthatgavemeareal

appreciationforwhythegeneralapproachofputtingpoliticiansorelectedofficialsina

cornerandpullingthemoutasyouneedthemforpressconferencesandthelike

doesn’treallyhelp….Itcompletelymisunderstandstheroleofelectedofficials.[They

are]asmuchinchargeasyouare,butinaverydifferentway.

DemandingandDeployingBoom

Yetdespitetheadministration’shopesthattheGovernors’Callswouldminimizepoliticalconflict,disagree‐

mentsbetweenfederalandstateauthoritiesonlyescalatedasMayworeon.Oneparticularlyintensepointofcon‐

tentionrevolvedaroundtheuseofoffshoreoil“boom”forprotectingthecoastline.21AlthoughtheCoastGuard

hadbegundeployingthematerialintheearliestdaysofthespill,ithaddonesojudiciously,placingitinareas

wheretheGuardbelieveditwouldhavethegreatesteffect.(AccordingtoCoastGuardofficials,boomisgenerally

usedtodeflectoiltoplaceswhereitcanbemosteasilycollectedandremoved–notforsafeguardinganentire

coastline.)Butdeterminedtoprotecttheirshoresbyanymeanspossible,thegovernorsappliedanenormous

amountofpressuretoincreasetheamountofboomusedintheresponse.

Soon,anintensebackandforthconcerningitseffectivenesswastakingplaceovertheairwavesandonthe

frontpagesofnewspapers.AsearlyasMay1,GovernorJindalwaspubliclystatingthathehadgrowntiredofwait‐

ingforfederalofficialstoagreetoplansinvolvingvastamountsofboom.“Wearepastthepointofwaitingforany

cleanupplansfromBPortheIncidentCommander.Wehavealreadybegundevelopingcontingencyplansforpar‐

ishes,”hedeclared.“Weareaskingforthesecontingencyplanstobeapprovedso[that]wearenolongerinthe

positionofrequestingboombythefootforoneplaceoranother.”22TheGovernordidnotletup,andoverthe

ensuingweekshemadehispointtimeandtimeagain.InlateMay,heremindedthepressthathisearlierrequest

formillionsoffeetofboomremainedunfilled.AnobviouslyfrustratedJindalstated,“Itisclearthattheresources

neededtoprotectourcoastarestillnothere.”Hethennotedwithprecision,“643,148feetofhardboomoutof

21Madeoutofplasticandotherbuoyantmaterial,boomfloatsinwaterandisusedtocollect,redirect,orabsorboil.Itisbest

usedincalmwaters,aswavescaneasilypassoverorbreakitapart,aproblemthatrepeatedlycomplicatedresponseeffortsthroughoutthecourseoftheDeepwaterHorizoncrisis(PeterGrier,“ContainmentBoomEffortComesupShortinBPOilSpill,”ChristianScienceMonitor,June11,2010;JulietteKayyem,“TheGameChanger,”BostonGlobe,April24,2011;andCampbellRobertson,“EffortstoRepelOilSpillareDescribedasChaotic,”NewYorkTimes,June14,2010).22QuotedinOfficeoftheGovernor,StateofLouisiana,“GovernorJindal:OilSpillisThreateningOurWayofLife&WeAre

FightingtoProtectOurCoast,”May1,2010,availableathttp://gov.louisiana.gov/index.cfm?md=newsroom&tmp=detail&articleID=2146,[accessedJuly27,2011].


[thetotaldelivered]hasbeendeployedand[a]remaining143,037feetofhardboomissittinginstagingareas,

whileoftencontractorssitandwaitforordersfromBPonwheretodeployit.”23

AlthoughMississippiGovernorHaleyBarbourtookadifferenttack,adopting,astheNewYorkTimesputit,a

“keep‐clam‐and‐carry‐on”approach,Jindalwasbynomeansaloneinpressingtheissue.24GovernorBobRileyof

Alabamawasalsodeterminedtoprocurewhatheconsideredhisstate’sfairshare–andhecomplainedbitterly

whenNICofficialsdecidedtoredirectsomeoftheboomoriginallyallottedforAlabamatoLouisiana,asoilslicks

beganmovinginthelatter’sdirection.25InearlyJune,aftertheObamaadministrationresolvedtheissuetohis

satisfaction,RileypubliclythankedthePresidentforhispersonalinvolvementinthematter.But,theGovernor

reiterated,“BoomthatwasdeployedhereinAlabamashouldneverhavebeentakenfromusinthefirstplace.”26

Infact,despitetheirreservations,federalauthoritiesmovedtoprocureanddistributeasmuchboomasthey

couldfind,realizingthattheissuehadtakenonpoliticalovertones.27DeputyNationalIncidentCommanderPeter

Neffengerlaterreflected,

Therewerecertaintimeswhenyouknewyouweredoingsomethingjusttodealwith

theveryrealpoliticalproblemsomebodyhad.Wefoughtthatasmuchaspossible[but]

agoodexampleisputtingboominplaceswhereboomwasn’tmeanttobeput,forpur‐

posesthatboomwasnevermeanttoaddress.

Neffengeraddedthatdeployingboomjusttoplacatethegovernorsalsohadnegativeconsequencesforthe

moraleofprofessionalresponders.“Well,”hesaid,“therewerealotofplaceswhereislandswerewrappedin

boomanditwasnotatalleffective.Respondersknewthat.Sotherealconcernisyouhavecreatedawholebunch

ofcynicalresponders.”(SeeExhibit6foranimageofislandsencircledbyboom.)

LouisianaandtheSandBerms

Disputesoverthedeploymentofboomwere,however,“relativelycivil,”astheNationalCommissionthatex‐

aminedtheDeepwaterHorizonresponseputit,incomparisontothedebateoveranotherstrategyadvancedby

23QuotedinOfficeoftheGovernor,StateofLouisiana,“GovernorJindalMeetswithCoastalParishLeaders,AnnouncesNew

StrategiestoProtectCoasttoFillVoid,”May23,2010,availableathttp://www.gov.state.la.us/index.cfm?md=newsroom&tmp=detail&articleID=2191,[accessedApril18,2012].24CampbellRobertson,JamesC.McKinley,Jr.,ShailaDewan,andDamienCave,“ADauntingStartofSummerfor5GulfState

Governors,”NewYorkTimes,May29,2010,A12.25HolbrookMohrandJohnFlesher,“GulfOilSpill’sThreattoWildlifeTurnsReal,”AssociatedPressOnline,June6,2010;and

JustinPritchard,TamaraLush,andHolbrookMohr,“BPSpillResponsePlansSeverelyFlawed,”AssociatedPressState&LocalWire,June9,2010.26QuotedinBenEvans,“Adm.AlleninHotSeatOverSpill,”AssociatedPressOnline,June11,2010.

27AsnotedbyNationalIncidentCommanderThadAllen,federalauthoritieswenttogreatlengthstofindenoughboomtokeep

upwiththedemandintheGulf.Hereported,“Weidentifiedeveryfootofboomintheworld….[and]engagedeverydomesticboomsuppliertoboostmanufacturefromafewthousandfeetperweekbeforethespilltooveraquarter‐millionfeetofboomperweekattheheightoftheresponse”(Allen,NationalIncidentCommander’sReport).


GovernorJindal–theconstructionofsandbermsofftheLouisianacoast.28InearlyMay,thestatehadrequested

thattheU.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineersgrantitanemergencypermittobuildmorethan100‐milesworthofberm,

arguingthatitwouldserveasaneffectivebarrieragainsttheoilthreateningLouisiana’scoastline.Afterreviewing

theproposal,however,theCorpsofEngineers,theNIC,andseveralotherfederalbodiesraisedsomeseriouscon‐

cerns.Expressingworriesaboutitspotentialenvironmentalconsequencesandthecostandtimeinvolved,aswell

asdoubtsastowhetherbermwasasuitabletoolforcombatingthespreadofoil,federalofficialswerereluctantto

approvethemassiveproject.29

Withthereviewprocessdraggingon,GovernorJindalagainpubliclyventedhisfrustrationswithhisfederal

counterparts,notingonMay23,“Wehave[been]waitingonadecisiononourdredging/sand‐boomplanfromthe

U.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineersfornearlytwoweeks.WemademodificationssuggestedbytheCorpsandanswered

everyquestiontheysubmittedinthesameday.”Hecontinued,“Everydaywearenotgiventheauthorizationto

moveforwardandcreatemoreofthesesandboomsisanotherdaywherethatchoiceismadeforusandmoreand

moremilesofourshorearehitbyoil.”30

FacingmountingpressurefromJindalandlocalofficialsinLouisiana–andwithPresidentObamainjecting

himselfintothedebate–federalauthoritieseventuallyallowedpartoftheprojecttomoveforward.31Butbuild‐

ingthebermsindeedprovedtobeatimeconsumingandextremelycostlyprocess,withjustasmallportionofthe

bermscompletedbythetimetheleakswerebroughtundercontrol.32

MarkCooper,however,defendedtheaggressivenesswithwhichJindalpushedforresourcesthathefeltmight

proveeffective.“CertainlyIthinkitwasintheGovernor’srightandhisresponsibilityofprotectingtheStateofLou‐

isiana’scitizenstotryanykindofprotectivemeasurehepossiblycould,”heasserted.“Becausewewerenotseeing

thatspillbeingplugged….Imeanourentirecoastwasatjeopardy!”Cooperpointedtooneotherimportantfactor

thatdroveJindal’sbehavior.“You’vegottokeepinmind,too,thateverybodywellremembers–whetherit’sper‐

ceptionorreality–Louisiana’sresponsetoKatrina,”heexplained.“AndIthinkhecertainlywantedtoletthepeo‐

28NationalCommissionontheBPDeepwaterHorizonOilSpillandOffshoreDrilling,DeepWater.

29MimiHall,RickJervis,andAlanLevin,“IsOilSpillBecomingObama’sKatrina?”USAToday,May27,2010;NationalCommis‐

sionontheBPDeepwaterHorizonOilSpillandOffshoreDrilling,TheStoryoftheLouisianaBermsProject:StaffWorkingPaperNo.8,updatedJanuary11,2011,availableathttp://www.oilspillcommission.gov/sites/default/files/documents/Updated%20Berms%20Working%20Paper.pdf,[accessedAugust9,2012];andCampbellRobertson,“LouisiananBecomesFaceofAngeronSpill,”NewYorkTimes,May31,2010.30QuotedinOfficeoftheGovernor,StateofLouisiana,“GovernorJindalMeetswithCoastalParishLeaders.”

31ThePresidentbecamedirectlyinvolvedduringaMay28meetingwithlocal,state,andfederalofficialsinGrandIsle,Louisi‐

ana.Afterheinvitedattendeestovoicetheirconcerns,PlaqueminesParishPresidentBillyNungesserandLouisianaGovernorBobbyJindalimmediatelyspokeup,stressingtheimportanceofthebermsproject.ThePresidentthenturnedtoNationalInci‐dentCommanderThadAllenandaskedhimtoconveneapanelofexpertstoconsidertheidea–despitethefactthattheNICandotherfederalbodieshadspentaconsiderableamountoftimedoingjustthat.Whetheritwasmeanttoornot,thePresi‐dent’srequestwasinterpretedasforcingtheNIC’shandandsettingoffachainofeventsthatculminatedintheapprovalofbermconstruction(NationalCommissionontheBPDeepwaterHorizonOilSpillandOffshoreDrilling,TheStoryoftheLouisianaBermsProject).32NationalCommissionontheBPDeepwaterHorizonOilSpillandOffshoreDrilling,DeepWater.


pleofLouisianaknowthathewasfullyengagedinwhatwasgoingonandincommandofasmuchashecouldbe

incommandof.”

Nullification

IntheeyesofNICofficials,however,differencesoverthetechnicalitiesofresponsestrategiesrevealedafar

deeperproblem:thebroader“politicalandsocialnullification,”asAdmiralAllenputit,oftheplansandrelation‐

shipsthatfederalandstateauthoritieshaddevelopedtodealwithoilspills.33AstheNationalCommissionthat

reviewedtheresponsetoDeepwaterHorizonlaterconcluded,“theGovernorsandotherstatepoliticalofficials

participatedintheresponseinunprecedentedways,takingdecisionsoutofthehandsofcareeroil‐spillrespond‐

ers.”34AssistantSecretaryJulietteKayyemelaborated,“Under[OPA],stateswererequiredtoworkwiththeCoast

GuardandtheindustrytoplananAreaContingencyPlan,amutualagreementbyallpartiesaboutwhatresponse

techniqueswouldbeusedintheeventofamajorspill.”But,shecontinued,duringtheDeepwaterHorizoncrisis,

“notoneoftheGulfgovernors….wouldacceptthathisownexpertshadsignedoffonplansthat,essentially,they

nolongerlikedintheharshlightofday.”35

FederalofficialsbelievedthatthiswasespeciallysoinLouisiana.There,theysaid,eventhoughthegovernor

publiclycomplainedabouttheirresponseplansandactions,hisownrepresentativeshadactuallyagreedtosome

oftheseverysamemeasuresandstrategies.Inthemidstoftheresponse,CoastGuardCaptainRogerLaferriere,

whodirectedfederalcleanupeffortsorganizedoutoftheIncidentCommandPostinHouma,Louisiana,ventedto

theNewYorkTimes,“Itoldhim,whenhesignstheplanhe’sendorsingourprojects.”Laferriereconcluded,“Lou‐

isianaisstilllearningtheprocess.”36Fortheirpart,however,Jindaladministrationofficialsarguedthattheyhad

littlerealinfluenceoverfederally‐drivenresponseefforts.37

Meanwhile,theNIC’srelationshipwiththestatebecameparticularlystrainedwhenfederalofficialsdeter‐

minedthatGovernorJindalhadmarginalizedLouisiana’spre‐designatedStateOn‐SceneCoordinator(SOSC)–

someonewithwhomtheCoastGuardhadpreviouslyworkedcloselyindeveloping,exercising,andcarryingout

contingencyplans.AttheverystartoftheDeepwaterHorizoncrisis,aspertheNationalContingencyPlan,the

SOSC–alongwithhiscounterpartsfromAlabamaandMississippi–hadreportedtotheUnifiedAreaCommand

(UAC)inRobert,Louisiana.Eventually,however,theJindaladministrationhadrelocatedthecoordinatortothe

IncidentCommandPostinHouma,Louisiana,amovethatfederalofficialssawaseffectivelysidelininghim.They

33Allen,NationalIncidentCommander’sReport.


35JulietteKayyem,“TheGameChanger.”

36QuotedinRobertson,“EffortstoRepelOilSpillareDescribedasChaotic.”

37NationalCommissionontheBPDeepwaterHorizonOilSpillandOffshoreDrilling,Decision‐MakingwithintheUnifiedCom‐

mand:StaffWorkingPaperNo.2,updatedJanuary2011;Seealso:StatementbyMichaelD.Edmondson,TheDeepwaterHori‐zonOilSpillChainofCommand:AnExaminationofInformationSharingPracticesDuringaSpillofNationalSignificance,FieldHearingBeforetheSubcommitteeonManagement,Investigations,andOversightoftheCommitteeonHomelandSecurity,U.S.HouseofRepresentatives,July12,2010,SerialNo.111‐74(U.S.GovernmentPrintingOffice,2011).


werefurtherfrustratedbywhattheyconsideredtheincreasinglydirectinvolvementofthegovernor’sofficeinhis

place.This,theysaid,injectedasetofunfamiliaractorsintotheresponseandsloweddownthedecision‐making

process.38

Stateofficialssawthingsverydifferently.Emphaticallydenyingthattheyhadsidelinedanyone,theyinstead

arguedthattheSOSC’srelocationwasduetothefactthatHoumawas“wherethemainemphasis[ofthere‐

sponse]wastakingplace.”39AddressingallegationsthatJindalhadthenassumedthedutiesoftheSOSC,hisadvi‐

sorsinsisted,“TheGovernorwasnevernamedStateonSceneCoordinator.”40

TheLocals

BytheendofMay,theDeepwaterHorizonoilleakshadevolvedintoafull‐blowncrisis.Inadditiontoahostof

disputesbetweenstateandfederalauthorities,aseriesofattemptsbyBPtosealofftheMacondoWellhad

failed;41thegovernmenthaddramaticallyraiseditsofficialflowrateestimatetoupto19,000barrelsaday;

42and

oilhadbegunwashingashore.StateandfederalofficialshadalsotakenstepstorestrictfishinginGulfwaters,dis‐

ruptingawayoflifefortheregion’sinhabitants(seeExhibit7foramapdepictingpeakfisheryclosures,asofJune

2,2010).And,inaparticularlycontroversialdecision,theObamaadministrationhadimposedasix‐monthmorato‐

riumonoildrillingtakingplaceatmorethan500feetunderwater.Themoratoriumcreatedsubstantialuncertainty

withintheoilindustry,theregion’smaineconomicengine.43

Fromapoliticalperspective,thesituationhadbecomedire.AUSAToday/GalluppollreleasedinlateMay

foundthat60%ofrespondentsbelievedthatthefederalgovernmentwasdoinga“poor”or“verypoor”jobof

managingtheresponse,whilemorethanhalfdisapprovedofPresidentObama’shandlingofthecrisis.Criticism


mand;NationalCommissionontheBPDeepwaterHorizonOilSpillandOffshoreDrilling,DeepWater;andTestimonybyMi‐chaelD.EdmondsonandRolandGuidry,TheDeepwaterHorizonOilSpillChainofCommand.39QuotedinTheDeepwaterHorizonOilSpillChainofCommand.

40QuotedinMarkSeibel,“StudySlamsConfusion,WasteinBPOilSpillResponse,”McClatchyNewspapers,October6,2010.

41ThroughoutMay,BPattemptedtostoptheleaksusingavarietyofmethods.Thetacticsincludedtryingtoreactivatethe

blowoutpreventer;placingacontainmentdomeovertheleaks;pluggingthewellwith“junkshots”ofsmallobjectsanddebris;andpursuinga“topkill”strategythatentailedfillingthewellwithheavymud(NationalCommissionontheBPDeepwaterHori‐zonOilSpillandOffshoreDrilling,DeepWater.)42Althoughfederalofficialscited19,000barrelsperday(bpd)asthehigh‐endofthegovernment’sMay27flowrateestimate,

somecalculationswereashighas25,000bpdormore(NationalCommissionontheBPDeepwaterHorizonOilSpillandOff‐shoreDrilling,DeepWater;andU.S.CoastGuard,BPDeepwaterHorizonOilSpill:IncidentSpecificPreparednessReview[ISPR],January,2011).43Formoreonthemoratorium,see:U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,NoticetoLesseesandOperatorsofFederalOilandGas

LeasesintheOuterContinentalShelfRegionsoftheGulfofMexicoandthePacifictoImplementtheDirectivetoImposeaMora‐toriumonAllDrillingofDeepwaterWells,May30,2010,availableathttp://www.doi.gov/news/pressreleases/upload/MORATORIUM_NTL.pdf,[accessedAugust1,2012].


waspouringinfromallcorners,andthemediahadbeguntoopenlyaskifDeepwaterHorizonwasnow“Obama’s

Katrina.”44

AsleadersoftheNationalIncidentCommandsoughttoregroup,theyidentifiedseveralissuesthattheybe‐

lievedhadcomplicatedtheresponseandcontributedtothecorrespondingpoliticalfallout.First,theyrecognized

thattheyhadfailedtomanageexpectationsandpreparethepublicfortheveryworst.AssistantSecretaryKayyem

elaborated,

TheblowoutpreventerfailedinApril.Whenwasthefirstoilfoundonshore?Itwasthe

lastweekofMay.Soweessentiallyhadfourweeksofanticipationwaitingforthisstuff.

ThatmeanswehadfourweekstoexplaintotheAmericanpublicwhatwasaboutto

happentothem,whatwasabouttohappentotheGulf.Wedidn’tdoit….Iwishwejust

saideveryday:‘look,oilwillhitshore.’Maybethen,whentheyactuallysawit,it

wouldn’thavebeensoshockingtothepublic.”

Inaddition,theyrealizedthattheyhadsomeveryrealproblemsrelatingtoandcoordinatingwithlocaljuris‐

dictions.Tostartwith,anumberoflocalitieshadopenlychafedathavingtooperateunderthedirectionoffederal

authorities,wholedtheresponsepursuanttoOPAandtheNCP.LafourcheParishPresidentCharlotteRandolph

explainedtheirpointofview:

Takingusoutofthepicture,outofthedecision‐making,justfrustratedustonoend,be‐

causewefeltweknewwhattheyshouldhavebeendoing.Yetthiswasafederalscene

andtheywereincharge.Theywerereluctanttoseekourinputinthis.Andthatperhaps

istheoverridingissueofitall:notrespectingthefactthatthelocalshadahandleonthe

situationbetterthantrainedprofessionalscominginfromoutside.

Feelingmarginalized,anumberoflocalitiesestablishedincidentcommandpoststomanagetheirownre‐

sponseefforts(whichtheyundertookindependentoftheNIC,usingfundsthatBPhadprovideddirectlytostates

andparishes).45ButaccordingtoRearAdmiralNeffenger,these“shadow”commandscreatedanadditionalhead‐

achefortheNIC,astheywereoften“directlyatoddswiththeworkofthe[federal]responders.”

Atthesametime,somelocalofficialshadtakentotheairwavestopointedlycriticizetheObamaadministra‐

tion’sleadershipoftheresponse.BillyNungesser,PresidentofPlaqueminesParish,Louisiana,wasparticularlyout‐

spokenandpubliclyquestionedthefederalgovernment’seffortsonaregularbasis.46InlateMay,withoilnow

comingashoreinLouisiana,Nungesserdeemedthefederalresponse“dysfunctional.”Allegingthat“there’sno

44Hall,Jervis,andLevin,“IsOilSpillBecomingObama’sKatrina?”


46OverthecourseoftheDeepwaterHorizoncrisis,NungesserbecameafamiliarpresenceonCNN,appearingontheevening

newscastAndersonCooper360atleasttentimesinthemonthofJunealone(MattDavis,“CNN’sAndersonCooperisBackinNewOrleanstoCoverYetAnotherDisaster:TheOilSpill,”TheTimes‐Picayune,July1,2010,availableathttp://www.nola.com/news/gulf‐oil‐spill/index.ssf/2010/07/cnns_anderson_cooper_is_back_i.html,[accessedApril18,2012]).


chainofcommand,noone’sincharge,”heconcluded,“theresponsetothis….hasbeenworsethanKatrina.”47

SpeakingonCNNonMay26,Nungesserhadevenharsherwordsforfederalauthorities–andfortheNationalInci‐

dentCommanderinparticular.“ThadAllenshouldresign,"heasserted."He'sdoneabsolutelynothing.He'san

embarrassmenttothiscountry….It'slike[theresponseis]beingrunwithabunchofseventh‐graders.Thisisabso‐

lutelyridiculous."48

Otherlocalleadersemployedslightlydifferenttactics.Althoughbynomeansadefenderoftheadministra‐

tion’smanagementoftheresponse,CharlotteRandolphmadeapointofexpressingherfrustrationsawayfrom

publicview.“Mystyleistoworkbehindthescenes,”sheexplained.“I’vefoundthatthemediamessageisnotal‐

wayssuccinctlydelivered–andit’smoresensational.”InsteadofmakinghercasethroughTVappearancesorin

thepapers,shepreferredtomeetin‐personwithfederalofficialsatunifiedareacommand.“Wefeltthathaving

theseone‐on‐onediscussionswasmoreeffective,”Randolphrecalled.“Youknow,you’vegottoacceptthefact

thatithappened,andthenyoustopblamingpeopleandstartworkingwiththepeoplewhocanfixit,”shesaid.

”Youhavetodothingsthatareproactive,andnotjustyellandscreamaboutthem.”

Yet,nomatterhowmanyoftheGulf’spoliticalleaderstookRandolph’sapproach,thepubliccomplaintscon‐

tinuedtodominatethenews.AndastheNIC’sleadersconsideredhowtogetabetterholdonthesituationpoliti‐

cally,theyrealizedthatwhiletheyhadoriginallyassumed–basedonthegoverningdoctrine–thatthestateswere

coordinatingwiththeirrespectivelocalleaders,thiswasnotalwaysthecase.49AssistantSecretaryKayyemex‐

plained,

WefellintothetrapoftheOilPollutionAct,whichwasverystatecentric.Anditmeant

thatifIamworkingwiththegovernor,theneverything’sOK.Andthenwerealizedthat

thereweremayors,countycommissioners,andparishpresidentswhohadtheirown

hostilitytowardsthestate….Wedidnotdoenoughearlyontogetthemtothetable,to

understandwhattheywereseeing,tounderstandwhattheyneeded.

Similarly,DeputyNationalIncidentCommanderPeterNeffengeremphasizedthattheNIC’searlyfocusonthe

statesattheexpenseoflocalitieswaslargelyduetobiasesbuiltintoOPAandtheNCP.Heexplainedthatduring

routineoilspillresponses,“We[theCoastGuard]workintandemwiththestates,butwetypicallydon’tpluginto

localcommunities.”TheDeepwaterHorizonresponsewasofsuchanextremescale,however,thatstandard

modesofoperationnolongerapplied.“Youcan’tsimplyassumethatthestateisgoingtoreachdownandconnect

47QuotedinHall,Jervis,andLevin,“IsOilSpillBecomingObama’sKatrina?”

48Quotedin“PlaqueminesParishPresidentBlastsFederalResponsetoOilSpill,”CNN,May26,2010,availableat

http://articles.cnn.com/2010‐05‐26/us/gulf.oil.spill.plaquemines_1_nungesser‐oil‐spill‐plaquemines‐parish?_s=PM:US,[ac‐cessedApril18,2012].49AsdetailedintheCoastGuard’sIncidentSpecificPreparednessReviewonDeepwaterHorizon,“Underthe[UnifiedCom‐

mand]constructlaidoutintheNCPandtheCoastGuard’sIMH,itisexpectedthatlocalissuesarisingwithinaStatewillbead‐dressedbytheStateOn‐SceneCoordinator(SOSC)andtheirstaffinthe[IncidentCommandPost]”(U.S.CoastGuard,ISPR).


foryou,”Neffengersaid.“Ithinkthattherewasageneralexpectationthatifyouwereworkingwiththestate,you

wereworkingwiththelocals.Andthat’snotalwaysthecase.”

AdmiralAllenassertedthatthiswasparticularlytrueinLouisiana,wherethereassignmentofthestate’slong‐

timeoilspillcoordinator,coupledwithdisputesandconfusionoverpreviouslyagreeduponclean‐upplans,com‐

plicatedtheengagementoflocalitiesinclean‐upefforts.Thepoliticalorganizationofthestateonlyaddedtothe

challenge.Unlikeitsneighbors,Louisianaisastrong“HomeRule”state,whichmeansthatparishleadersenjoy

considerableautonomy–somethingthatthestate‐centricOPAwasnotwellsuitedfor.50

Seekingtoaddresstheproblem,NICleadersrolledoutinMayanewlydeveloped“liaisons’program,”through

whichtheydeployeddozensofCoastGuardofficerstostandalongsidelocalofficialsfromacrosstheGulf.51Ex‐

plainingthebenefitsoftheprogramforlocalleaders,Kayyemsaid,“Inacrisis,youjustwantsomeonewhohas

authority,whocanansweryourquestions,soasapoliticalperson,youdon’tlooklikeyoudon’tknowanything.”

AdmiralAllenadded,“Therehadtobeunityofeffort[betweenalllevelsofgovernment].Andtheonlywaytocre‐

ateaunityofeffortistomakesureyouunderstoodwhateverybodywasdoing.Andwehadtoadaptourstructure

todo[so].”

Fortheremainderofthecrisis,localleaderscouldturntotheirliaisonstoobtaincriticalinformation,channel

theircomplaints,andmaketheirneedsknowntoseniorresponseleaders.Atthesametime,theNICleadership

wouldbenefitfromfargreatertransparencyonissuesandconditionsatthelocallevel.Takingpainstoemphasize

theimportanceoftheprogram,DeputyNationalIncidentCommanderNeffengerandAssistantSecretaryKayyem

traveledtogetherthroughouttheregion,personallyintroducingparishpresidents,countyofficials,andmayorsto

theirnewlyappointedliaisons.

AccordingtoLafourche’sCharlotteRandolph,theprogramprovedworthwhile–eventually.“Webalkedatit

initiallybecauseofthefactthatthey[theliaisons]seemedverybureaucraticandnotreallyparticularlyresponsive

toeventsthatoccurred,”sheexplained.Ultimately,however,Randolphacknowledgedthatdeployingtheliaisons

wasbeneficialtobothlocalleadersandfederalauthorities.“Theintroductionofaliaisonwasveryhelpfulinthat

wewereabletospendquiteabitoftimewiththatparticularpersonexplainingthesituationandeducatingthem

ontheterritory,”sheobserved.MarkCooper,headoftheLouisianaGovernor’sOfficeofHomelandSecurityand

EmergencyPreparednessatthetimeofDeepwaterHorizonconcurred.“[Theprogram]certainlyassistedwiththe

frustrationatthelocallevel,”hesaid.“TheyhadsomebodyrighttherewiththemfromtheCoastGuardthatthey

couldcommunicatewith.”Headded,however,thattheprogramshouldhavebeenputinplacefromtheget‐go.“I

thinkthatthatwouldhavehelped[alleviate]someoftheangstthatwascreatedwiththeinformationthatwas

beingreported.”


mand.51Formoreontheliaisonprogram,see:Allen,NationalIncidentCommander’sReport;U.S.CoastGuard,ISPR;andU.S.Coast

Guard,OnSceneCoordinatorReport,DeepwaterHorizonOilSpill,September2011,availableathttp://www.uscg.mil/foia/docs/dwh/fosc_dwh_report.pdf,[accessedAugust1,2012].


Kayyemconcededthatittooksometimeforherandhercolleaguestoworkouttheprogram’skinks.Inpar‐

ticular,shenoted,itsoonbecameapparentthatsomeoftherelativelyjuniorCoastGuardofficersservingasliai‐

sonslackedtherequisiteexperience,skills,andrank.Overtime,theNICcorrectedtheproblembyintegrating

moreseniorofficersintotheprogram.Thiswasanimportantshift,asthehigherrankingofficershadfargreater

authoritytomoveresourcesandprovideanswerstothelocalofficialswithwhomtheyhadbeenpaired.“Youhave

tochooseverycarefullywhoyouputinthosepositions,”RearAdmiralPeterNeffengeremphasized.“Youneedthe

abilitytotakealotofheat,withoutcrumbling.Butbythesametoken,youhavetobeadiplomat,becauseifyou

justfightback,thenyou’velost….You’reworkingforsomebodyelse,andyourjobistofigureoutwhytheyhavea

problemandwhattheirissueis–howeverit’sdelivered.”Thiswasbynomeansaneasytask,butNeffengersaidof

theliaisonprogram:

Ithinkitwasprobablythemostimportantworkthatwedid.Becauseultimatelyitreally

didturn,Ithink,thegeneralcommentsofthelocalofficialsfrom‘theseguysareincom‐

petent’to‘alright,theyusedtobeincompetent,butnowthey’redoingtheirjobs.’AndI

thinkthe‘doingtheirjobpart’was‘nowthey’relisteningtome.’

TheCrisisDiminishes

EvenasNICofficialsfine‐tunedtheirresponse,vastamountsofoilcontinuedtoleakfromtheMacondoWell;

andbymid‐June,federalofficialswereestimatingthattheflow‐ratewassomewherebetween35,000and60,000

barrelsperday.52Allthesame,severalkeydevelopmentsbegantohelpturnthetide,slowlyraisingconfidencein

theresponseanddiminishingthepoliticalfallout.

ThepresenceofCoastGuardliaisonsintheofficesofparishpresidentsandcitymayorswentalongwayin

minimizingthedysfunctionthathadcharacterizedintergovernmentalrelationsthroughoutMay.Inaddition,a

dramaticannouncementbyPresidentObamaattheendofthemonthmarkedamorepubliclyaggressivestance

onthepartofthefederalgovernment.WhilevisitingtheGulfonMay28,thePresidentemphasizedthathetook

fullresponsibilityforresolvingthecrisis.Underscoringhiscommitment,herevealedthathewastriplingthenum‐

beroffederalpersonnelandresourcesdedicatedtotheresponseintheGulf.53

NICleadersperceivedthePresident’smoveasamixedblessing.Ononehand,itseriouslycomplicatedlogisti‐

caloperations;ontheother,theyrealizedthatithadsignificantpoliticalbenefits.AsAssistantSecretaryKayyem

observed,

Soweweregoingtotripletheresources,andtheCoastGuardandtheNICneededto

figureouthowtodothat.Itwasn’teasyanditwasblunt.Butcrisisresponseisnotsim‐

52U.S.CoastGuard,ISPR.

53NationalCommissionontheBPDeepwaterHorizonOilSpillandOffshoreDrilling,Deepwater;andOfficeofthePressSecre‐

tary,TheWhiteHouse,RemarksbythePresidentafterBriefingonBPOilSpill,May28,2010,availableathttp://www.whitehouse.gov/the‐press‐office/remarks‐president‐after‐briefing‐bp‐oil‐spill,[accessedJuly21,2011].


plytherealityofoperationalelements;itisalsotheperceptionofgrip.Andthatwas

whatthepresidentwassmartlydoing.

Despitethefactthatitwasfarfromclearhownecessarytheaddedpersonnelandresourceswere,theNIC’s

leadershipconsideredthePresident’sannouncementanimportantstepinseizingbackthenarrative.

Justtwoweekslater,anothermoveorchestratedbytheWhiteHousehelpedtoreorientthepoliticsofthecri‐

sisevenmore:onJune16,PresidentObamainformedtheAmericanpublicthatunderpressurefromhisadmini‐

stration,BPhadagreedtopay$20billionintoanescrowaccount.Thefunds,whichthecompanywasnotlegally

obligatedtoprovide,wouldbeusedtocompensatepeopleandbusinessesaffectedbythespill.(Asmandatedby

OPA,BPwouldalsocontinuetocoverclean‐upcosts.)54“Tome,”Kayyemnoted,“thatwasthepivotalmoment.It

gavetheCoastGuardsomebreathingspace,anditwasthefirstmomentwhereBPlookedlikeitwaslickingits

wounds….TheWhiteHouseshowedtremendousleadershipandbrilliantlawyering.”

Meanwhile,evenbetternewswastocome.Inmid‐July,forthefirsttimesincethecrisisbegan,BPmanaged

tofullycontaintheleaksemanatingfromtheMacondoWell.AlthoughNationalIncidentCommanderAllenwould

notdeclarethewellcompletelydeaduntilSeptember19,respondershadforallintentsandpurposesmettheir

immediategoalofbringingtheleaksundercontrol.55

OnOctober1,theNICofficiallydisbanded.56AshesteppeddownasNationalIncidentCommander,Admiral

Allenemphasizedthegreatlengthsofficialshadgonetoinordertoresolvethecrisis.“Throughtheunifiedefforts

ofover47,000people,weorganizedanddirectedamonumentalresponsetoremoveandmitigatethedamages

fromtheestimated4.9millionbarrelsofoildischargedintotheGulf,”Allenobserved.57Atthesametime,he–

alongwithmanyotherofficialsintimatelyinvolvedintheresponse–readilyacknowledgedthatimprovements

neededtobemadeinhowthecountrydealtwithcrisesofthismagnitude.Perhapsmostsignificantly,theexperi‐

encerevealedmajorinadequaciesinhowtherelevantdoctrinesandplansdealtwiththeinvolvementofpolitical

leaders.AsSpecialAssistanttothePresidentJosephAldyputit,aresponsecan’tsimplybeshapedaround“what‐

54OfficeofthePressSecretary,TheWhiteHouse,StatementbythePresidentafterMeetingwithBPExecutives,June16,2010,

availableathttp://www.whitehouse.gov/the‐press‐office/statement‐president‐after‐meeting‐with‐bp‐executives,[accessedJuly21,2011].55ButtemperingthisvictorywasthealltooobviousfactthattheDeepwaterHorizoncrisishadanumberoffar‐reachingand

long‐lastingnegativeeffects.Inadditiontosignificantlyaffectingthereputationsofnationalandregionalpoliticalleaders,thespill’seconomicandenvironmentalconsequencesweresevere.Althoughscientistsgenerallybelievedthatmostofthenearly5millionbarrelsofoilreleasedintotheGulfwaseithergoneordisperseddeepunderwaterwithintwoyearsofthespill,thefullextentofenvironmentaldamageswouldremainunclearforsometime;andattheveryleast,theoilthatdidwashashorehadinflictedseriousdamageonmarshesandwetlands(“TheBigSpill,TwoYearsLater,”NewYorkTimes,April17,2012).Mean‐while,economicactivityacrossseveralsectors–includingenergy,fishing,andtourism–hadexperiencedsignificantdisruptionsasaresultofthespill.(FormoreontheDeepwaterHorizon’seconomiceffects,see:Aldy,“Real‐TimeEconomicAnalysisandPolicyDevelopment.”)56NationalCommissionontheBPDeepwaterHorizonOilSpillandOffshoreDrilling,DeepWater.

57Allen,NationalIncidentCommander’sReport.


everplanorsetofruleshadbeenestablishedinthepast”ifthoseplansandrulesaresilentontheroleofthesen‐

ior‐mostpoliticalleaders,whoinevitabilityplayakeyroleduringacrisis.

Allenfullyagreed.BasedonhisexperienceasNationalIncidentCommander,heconcluded,“Ifyoudon’thave

astructured,relevantroleforpoliticalleaders,theywillcreateone….Thedoctrinehastoincludethepoliticalen‐

vironment,becauseitisthesociologicalecologyoftheresponse.Andyoucannotdoalargeresponsewithoutit.

That’sthebottomline.”


Exhibit1

ChronologyofEventsinthe

Responsetothe2010DeepwaterHorizonOilSpill

Tuesday,April20

AnexplosionrockedtheDeepwaterHorizonoildrillingrig,locatedintheGulfofMexicoofftheLouisianacoast,

sparkinganintensefireandkilling11workers.

Thursday,April22

TheDeepwaterHorizonsanktotheseafloor.

Saturday,April24

LeaksemanatingfromtheDeepwaterHorizon’sriserpipewerediscovered.

Thursday,April29

HomelandSecuritySecretaryJanetNapolitanodesignatedtheeventa“SpillofNationalSignificance”(thefirstsuch

designationinU.S.history).

LouisianaGovernorBobbyJindaldeclaredaStateofEmergency.Hesubsequentlysubmittedaseriesoflettersto

variousfederalagenciesrequestingarangeofresourcesandotherformsofaidandassistance.

Friday,April30

Seniorfederalofficials,includingSecretaryNapolitano,InteriorSecretaryKenSalazar,EPAAdministratorLisaJack‐

son,andCarolBrowner,DirectoroftheWhiteHouseOfficeofEnergyandClimateChange,metwithstateandlocal

leadersatUnifiedAreaCommand,locatedinRobert,Louisiana.

GovernorsBobRileyofAlabama,CharlieCristofFlorida,andHaleyBarbourofMississippideclaredStatesofEmer‐

gencyfortheirrespectivestates.

Saturday,May1

TheObamaadministrationappointedAdmiralThadAllenNationalIncidentCommanderfortheDeepwaterHori‐

zonresponse.

AllensubsequentlynamedRearAdmiralPeterNeffengerasDeputyNationalIncidentCommanderandDHSAssis‐

tantSecretaryforIntergovernmentalAffairsJulietteKayyemashischiefpoliticalliaison.


Sunday,May2

SecretariesNapolitanoandSalazarhostedaconferencecallwiththegovernorsoftheGulfStates.Thesecallssub‐

sequentlytookplaceonadailybasis,hostedbytheWhiteHouseandfacilitatedbyAssistantSecretaryKayyemand

DeputyNationalIncidentCommanderNeffengner.

Thursday,May27

USATodayandGallupreleasedapollinwhich60%ofadultrespondentsindicatedthatthegovernmentwasdoing

apoorjobmanagingtheresponsetothespill.

Friday,May28

Declaringthathetookfullresponsibilityforbringingthecrisistoanend,PresidentObamaannouncedthetripling

ofresourcesandmanpowerforthefederalresponseintheGulf.

Mid‐June

Federalofficialsestimatedthattheflow‐ratewassomewherebetween35,000and60,000barrelsperday.

Wednesday,June16

PresidentObamainformedtheAmericanpublicthatBPhadagreedtopay$20billionintoanescrowaccountin

ordertocoverdamagesfromthespill.

Sunday,September19

AdmiralAllendeclaredtheMacondoWellcompletelydead.

Friday,October1

TheNationalIncidentCommanddisbanded.


Exhibit2

KeyActorsinthe

Responsetothe2010DeepwaterHorizonOilSpill

FederalOfficials

• JosephAldy,SpecialAssistanttothePresidentforEnergyandEnvironment,theNationalEconomicCoun‐

cilandtheWhiteHouseOfficeofEnergyandClimateChange

• AdmiralThadAllen,NationalIncidentCommanderfortheDeepwaterHorizonOilSpillResponseandfor‐

merCommandant,U.S.CoastGuard

• JulietteKayyem,AssistantSecretaryforIntergovernmentalAffairs,U.S.DepartmentofHomelandSecurity

• JanetNapolitano,Secretary,U.S.DepartmentofHomelandSecurity

• RearAdmiralPeterNeffenger,DeputyNationalIncidentCommanderfortheDeepwaterHorizonOilSpill

Response,andformerCommander,NinthDistrict,U.S.CoastGuard

• BarackObama,President,UnitedStatesofAmerica

StateandLocalOfficials

• HaleyBarbour,Governor,StateofMississippi

• MarkCooper,Director,Governor’sOfficeofHomelandSecurityandEmergencyPreparedness,Stateof

Louisiana(andsubsequentlySeniorDirectorforEmergencyManagementatWalmartStores,Inc.)

• CharlieCrist,Governor,StateofFlorida

• BobbyJindal,Governor,StateofLouisiana

• BillyNungesser,President,PlaqueminesParish,StateofLouisiana

• CharlotteRandolph,President,LafourcheParish,StateofLouisiana

• BobRiley,Governor,StateofAlabama


Exhibit3

ListofAcronyms

DHS U.S.DepartmentofHomelandSecurity

EPA EnvironmentalProtectionAgency

FEMA FederalEmergencyManagementAgency

NCP NationalOilandHazardousSubstancesPollutionContingencyPlan(NationalContingencyPlan)

NIC NationalIncidentCommand

NOAA NationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration

OPA OilPollutionAct

SONS SpillofNationalSignificance

SOSC StateOn‐SceneCoordinator


Exhibit4

MapoftheStateofLouisianawithParishes

SOURCE:U.S.CensusBureau,State&CountyQuickFacts,2013,availableat

http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/maps/stout22.gif,[accessedJanuary22,2013].NOTE:ArrowindicateslocationofLafourcheParish,Louisiana.PlaqueminesParishislocatedtotherightofthe

arrow.


Exhibit5

DeepwaterHorizonOilSpillResponseStatistics

Totalestimatedamountofoilspilled 4,928,100barrels

Totalamountofoilrecovereddirectlyfromwellhead 689,934barrelsor17%

Totalamountofoilburned 246,405barrelsor5%

Totalamountofoilskimmed 147,843barrelsor3%

Totalamountofoilchemicallydispersed 394,248barrelsor8%

Totalamountofoilnaturallydispersed 788,496barrelsor16%

Totalamountofoilevaporatedordissolved 1,232,025barrelsor25%

Totalamountofoilresidual 1,281,306barrelsor26%

Totalnumberofresponsevessels 345vessels

Totalnumberofresponders 48,200personnel

TotalnumberofCoastGuardpersonnel 7,000activedutyandreserve

TotalnumberofCoastGuardassets 60vesselsand22aircraft

Totalnumberofvesselsofopportunity 3,200vessels

Totalamountofhardboomdeployed 3.8millionfeet

Totalamountofsoftboomdeployed 9.7millionfeet

Totalamountofdispersantsused 1.8milliongallons

Totalnumberofin‐situburnsconducted 411burns

Totalnumberofsurveillanceaircraftused 127aircraft

Totalnumberofincidentcommandposts 4commandposts(TX,LA,AL,andFL)

Totalnumberofsubordinatebranches 17branches

Totalnumberofequipmentstagingareas 32stagingareas

Totalnumberofaviationcoordinationcenters 1aviationcoordinationcenter(TyndallAFB)

Totalamountofliquidwastecollected 1.4millionbarrelsofliquidwaste

Totalamountofsolidwastecollected 92tonsofsolidwaste

Totalnumberofinternationaloffersofassistance 47offersofassistance

SOURCE:U.S.CoastGuard,BPDeepwaterHorizonOilSpill:IncidentSpecificPreparednessReview(ISPR),January,

2011,availableathttp://www.uscg.mil/foia/docs/dwh/bpdwh.pdf,[accessedJanuary22,2013].


Exhibit6

OilBoomaroundNewHarborIsland,Louisiana

SOURCE:U.S.Navy,May16,2010,photono.100519‐N‐6141B‐001,availableat

http://www.navy.mil/view_image.asp?id=85711,[accessedJanuary19,2013].NOTE:ThisphotodepictsoilcontainmentboompositionedaroundNewHarborIsland,Louisiana,duringthe

DeepwaterHorizoncrisis.


Exhibit7

GulfofMexicoFisheryClosures,asofJune2,2010

SOURCE:SoutheastRegionalOffice,NationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration,MapofFisheryClosure

BoundaryEffectiveJune2,2010,availableat

http://sero.nmfs.noaa.gov/deepwater_horizon/closure_info/documents/pdfs/bp_oilspill_fisheryclosuremap_0602

10.pdf,[accessedJanuary12,2013].

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