The BioMara Project
Michele Stanley, Kyla Orr, Lars
Brunner, Peter Schiener
SAMS Coordination Centre:
Scottish Association for Marine
Science, Oban, Scotland
T: +44 (0)1631 559000
F: +44 (0)1631 559001
W: www.biomara.org
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Project supported by the INTERREG IVA
Programme Managed by SEUPB
Introduction
Scottish Association for Marine
Science
Sustainable fuels from marine
biogas
EU Parliament – “10% transport
fuel from renewable sources by
2020”
Kelp aquaculture? Subtidal kelp?
Seaweed fermented to make bioethanol
or
anaerobically digested to make biogas (methane)
447 TJ of energy to be generated from macroalgae by 2020.
~0.2% of current national road-fuel demands.
ttp://cfb.unh.edu/phycokey/Choices/Fucophyceae/LAMINA
RIA/Laminaria_Image_page.htm
Beach-cast kelp?
(wrack)
Sources of seaweed for biofuels
Study Area West coast of the Uists, Islands of
the Outer Hebrides, Scotland
More than 12 miles of beaches
with varying loads of beach-cast seaweed
The Outer Hebrides:
Fuel in Context
Information taken from : Outer Hebrides Housing Strategy, 2011-2016,
- Highest poverty rates in Scotland
-31% of households are in extreme fuel
poverty
-No mains gas supply to heat houses
Houses required to use more costly fuels
(coal, peat, wood, electricity)
-Highest per capita residential (CO2)
emissions in Scotland
-Exceptionally high petrol and diesel
prices (e.g 40p per litre greater than
mainland)
What is the bioenergy potential?
TOTAL biomass of beach cast estimated in
the entire Outer Hebrides:
210 000 tons/year (Walker 1954)1
= 4.62 x 106m3 methane
- enough methane to heat 2874 houses
(24% of total households)
- Equivalent to ~ 5 000 000 liters petrol
Where: 2One wet ton of seaweed yields 22 m3 of methane with a gross calorific value of 39.8 MJ/m.
3One m3 biogas is equivalent to 1.1 liters petrol2
Example of beach cast kelp washed ashore after
storms, November 2011, North Uist, Scotland
Walker, F. T. (1954). "Distribution of Laminariaceae around Scotland." Journal du Conseil 20(2): 160-166. 2Bruton, T., H. Lyons, et al. (2009). A Review of the
Potential of Marine Algae as a Source of Biofuel in Ireland, Sustainable Energy Ireland., 3http://www.balticbiogasbus.eu/web/about-biogas.aspx
http://www.bto.org/volunteer-surveys/birdtrack/bird-recording/by-migration-season/seasonal-movements
The Uists is of national
importance to:
-overwintering waders (e.g.
Turnstone)
-breeding waders (e.g.
Dunlin)
- Important stop-over and
feeding site for migrating birds
in autumn and spring Migration patterns of two
populations of Turnstone
The Outer Hebrides: Environmental Context
Collection of field data for the model
Ecopath requires input of biomass
data in g/m2/year
• Field studied were conducted
over a 1 year period
• Wrack biomass determined and
bird counts conducted every 6
weeks
• Macroafauna abundance
assessed every 3 months
Model domain:
MLW-HWS
300m length of shore
Results: The food web
Flow diagram generated in Ecopath showing trophic links
between groups. Nodes are proportional to biomass.
Note: benthic diatom biomass were estimate from the literature
Results: The food web
Average biomass of key prey items on modelled beaches
Group Biomass kg/m1/year Total biomass in model
area* (tons)
Diptera (>90% larvae) 4.6 1.4
Detritivorous polychaetes 5.3 1.6
Oligochaetes 4.0 1.2
Kelp Wrack 3229 966
*300m length of beach, width = 130m
Note: This is not the input of kelp wrack per year, it is the average
standing biomass on the beach at any one time
4
3
2
1
Birds
Capitellidae
Spionidae
Staphylinidae
Hydrophylidae
Talitridae
Diptera Larvae
Enchytraeid
Fresh cast kelpDecaying seaweed - HWS Detritus POC - sediment
Theoretical flow diagram showing
trophic linkages on a beach with
storm-cast seaweed
•Fresh seaweed decays.
•Grazers move in when bacteria
levels are high enough.
•Most species feed on the decaying
seaweed at HWS.
•Unconsumed seaweed are
incorporated into sediment and water
column as detritus (POC).
•POC is important for deposit feeding
polychaetes at LWL.
•On beaches with seaweed birds
exploit two food resources
•1) polychaetes at the LW line
•2) invertebrates in seaweed at HW
line.
•This allows them to feed throughout
the day rather than just at low tide –
likely an important strategy for pre-
migratory fattening of birds.
Site selection is everything- also how much
you remove and when
Results: Ecosim
Example of dynamic simulation generated in Ecosim in which 99%
of the biomass of kelp wrack was harvested continuously
Worst case scenario: All kelp wrack removed
Gulls
Waders
Results: Ecosim
Example of dynamic simulation generated in Ecosim in which 50% of the
biomass of kelp wrack was harvested for 10 years, and then harvesting ceased
Stop
harvest Start
harvest Invertebrate groups
recover to original
biomass within 2
years, but bird
populations take
much longer to
recover Waders
Gulls
Carnivorous
beetles
Results: harvesting intensities
0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1
1,2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Rela
tive
Bio
ma
ss
% Kelp wrack harvested
Gulls
Waders
Detritivores
Relative biomass of selected functional groups at different
harvesting intensities of kelp wrack. Relative biomass is taken
after 10 years of harvesting.
Results: recovery time
Time taken for gulls and waders to recover to 95% of their
original biomass after harvesting wrack at different intensities.
The harvesting period was 10 years, after which harvesting
ceased.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Reco
very
tim
e (
years
)
% Wrack biomass harvested from beach for 10 years
Gulls
Waders
• 10% biomass harvested
for rotational cycles;
-1year harvest
-1 year recovery
Minimum impact scenario:
Waders; biomass maintained at > 90%
Example of dynamic simulation generated in Ecosim in
which 10% of the biomass of kelp wrack was harvested
in rotational cycles of 1 year harvest, 1 year recovery
1Walker, F. T. (1954). "Distribution of Laminariaceae around Scotland." Journal du Conseil 20(2): 160-166. 2Bruton, T., H. Lyons, et al. (2009). A Review of the
Potential of Marine Algae as a Source of Biofuel in Ireland, Sustainable Energy Ireland., 3http://www.balticbiogasbus.eu/web/about-biogas.aspx
Can model results be extended to entire Outer Hebrides?
TOTAL biomass of beach cast estimated in the entire Outer Hebrides
= 210 000 tons/year (Walker 1954)1
10% Total= 21 000 tons/year
= 642 000 m3methane/year
= 500 000 liters petrol (equivalent)
Where: 2One wet ton of seaweed yields 22 m3 of methane with a gross calorific value of 39.8 MJ/m3.
3One m3 biogas is equivalent to 1.1 liters petrol2
? Can the model actually predict
harvestable biomass?
How much fuel?- Basic estimates…
Tiny plants 2mm
seeded to string
3 months
Each plant at harvest,
6 – 8 months later, 1- 2m
Seaweed culture established in Scotland since 2004
Seaweed Cultivation • Like any form of agriculture there will be variation between
years
• Strings seeded in November with S. polyschide, S. latissima
and A. esculenta.
• Longlines place out at Loch Beag 2010
• Site examination carried out in early May
• Growth of all three species was observed, S. polyschides
displayed slower growth than S. latissima or A. esculenta.
• Several lines had dense growth of Ectocarpus sp.
• Only one section of long-line covered may imply that it was a
locally sourced growth and not introduced at hatchery stage.
• All three species were harvested at the end of June
Cautionary notes on biomass
estimation • Inconsistencies exist when
describing biomass and productivity
• For example: biomass referred to in kg/ha with no reference to how many longline structure per hectare
• Wet, dry, sun dry weight?
• Need for standardisation- should include – Seawater temperature,
Photosyntheically Active Radiation (PAR), Salinity, Current speed, seawater nutrients (nitrate, nitrite, ammonium and phosphate).
IMTA?
Fish Farm/Mussels?
Macroalgae
Bioremediation
Bioplastics
Protein
Bioenergy
Bioremediation
- Palmaria palmata (growth rate 48% and biomass 63%)
- S. latissima (growth rate 61% and biomass 27%)
Placement of seaweed- nitrogen content increased to as you got closer to
the fish cages
Potential to remove 5% to 12% of waste nitrogen from 500 tonnes salmon
farm over 2 yrs
(ref. Sanderson et al (2012) Aquaculture)
Fuel- Bioethanol
When to harvest?
Which seaweed?
Is pre-treatment required?
How to saccharify biomass?
What to do with
the waste?
How to ferment?
What are the
yields?
Seaweed as a fermentation substrate
Evaluation over
one season:
1. L. digitata
2. L. hyperborea
3. S. latissima
Evaluation over a
quarter:
1. A. esculenta
2. F. serratus
3. F. vesiculosis
4. A. nodosum
5. S.
polyschides
Seaweed compounds of
interest
Value to fermentation
Ash/ minerals micronutrients
Carbohydrates macronutrient (C-source)
Proteins macronutrient (N-source)
Polyphenols none - inhibitive
Seaweed as a Fermentation
Substrate
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
08-2010 10-2010 12-2010 02-2011 04-2011 06-2011 08-2011 10-2011
Ch
em
ica
l co
mp
osi
tio
n
Seasonal variations in the chemical composition of Laminaria hyperborea
Ash Alginic acid Glucans Mannitol Polyphenols Protein
Best
harvest
times
Best
harvest
times
aug-10 nov-10 feb-11 jun-11 sep-11 dec-11
S.latissima L.hyperborea A.esculenta
Seasonality shift Species shift
Key messages:
1. Seasonality influences yields
2. Extension of harvesting period possible by cultivating
different species
3. No monoculture
Seasonality
shift
Saccharification
When harvested
at peak season -
gap closes to
maximum yields
Key message:
52
72
14 10 10 15
40
48
65
76
46 44 43
46
60 63
% e
ffic
ien
cy
Comparison of dilute acid and enzyme hydrolysis against concentrated acid
hydrolysis using Laminaria hyperborea
Dilute acid Enzymesconcentrated acid
Laminaria hyperborea
Hexoses Glucose, Galactose
Rhamnose, Fucose, Mannose, Mannitol
Pentoses Xylose, Arabinose
Uronic acids
Mannuronic acid, Guluronic acid
Hexoses
~20-60%
Pentoses
~1-5%
Uronic acids
~20-30%
Substrate
Hexoses Glucose,
Galactose
Rhamnose, Fucose, Mannose,
Mannitol
Saccharomyces cerevisiae Substrates: Glucose, Mannose, Galactose*, others
High YEtOH ~ 86%
Ethanol yields from seaweeds**:
% yields(max) L.hyperborea L.digitata S.latissima A.esculenta
Bioethanol
(l/t(seaweed)
~ 35 ~ 27 ~ 25 ~ 25
* Slow fermentation; ** based on lab results, assuming 85% moisture content of seaweed
and 100% recovery rates
Pichia angophorae • Substrates: Glucose, Mannose, Mannitol, others
• Potential for +60% higher EtOH yields
• no ind. strain for high strength ethanol production
• Highest EtOH production in lab: ~25 g/l, YEtOH (~47%)
Hexoses Glucose,
Galactose
Rhamnose, Fucose, Mannose,
Mannitol
Uronic acids
Mannuronic acid, Guluronic acid
Sphingomonas sp. A1 H.,Takeda et
al. 2011
Substrates: Uronic acids, glucose, others
Ethanol yields *:
0.26 kg EtOH/ kg alginate
~20 l EtOH/ t seaweed (calculated for alginate
only)
*
E. coli A.J., Wargacki et al 2012
Substrates: Uronic acids, glucose, others
Ethanol yields **:
0.281 kg EtOH/ kg d.m.
~54 l EtOH/ t seaweed
* Assuming 40% alginate and 85% moisture content in seaweed, ** assuming 85% moisture content
Key Questions • Identify the key environmental factors
influencing yield and biochemical composition.
• Site selection.
• Develop life cycle assessment capability
including carbon balance and sustainability
information suitable for aquatic and marine
systems.
• Assess the potential for algal diseases to
affect both cultivated algae and wild stocks.
• Identify the role of algae in carbon and nutrient
cycling.
• Identify to what extent algal farms attract or
repel marine mammals.
• Understand to what extent algal cultivation
affects biodiversity in the farm, the water
column and benthic environment.
Project supported by the INTERREG IVA Programme
Managed by SEUPB
• Scottish Association for Marine Science (SAMS)
• Centre for Sustainable Technologies, University of Ulster
• Centre for Renewable Energy, Dundalk Institute of
Technology (CREDIT)
• Sligo Institute of Technology
• Fraser of Allander Institute, University of Strathclyde
• QUESTOR, a cross-border centre co-ordinated by The
Queen’s University, Belfast
Partners
Funders
Coordination Centre:
Scottish Association for Marine
Science, Oban, Scotland
T: +44 (0)1631 559000
F: +44 (0)1631 559001
W: www.biomara.org