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The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers
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The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers
Editor-in-Chief
Thomas Hockey
Senior Editors
Virginia TrimbleThomas R. Williams
Editors
Katherine BracherRichard A. JarrellJordan D. Marché, IIF. Jamil Ragep
Associate Editor
JoAnn Palmeri
Assistant Editor
Marvin Bolt
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Dr. Thomas HockeyProfessor of AstronomyUniversity of Northern IowaDepartment of Earth ScienceOffice: Latham 112Cedar FallsIA 50614USA
ISBN 13: 978-0-387-31022-0The electronic version of the whole set will be available under ISBN-13: 978-0-387-30400-7.The print and electronic bundle of the whole set will be available under ISBN-13: 978-0-387-33628-2.
© 2007 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC.
All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher (Springer Science+Business Media, LLC., 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodo-logy now known or hereafter developed is forbidden.The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights.
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To my teachers
Aldrich SyversonJoseph Freimeyer
Connie MitchellJohn Miller
Paul CokePeggy Hudson
Irwin ShapiroJohn LewisReta Beebe
Herbert BeebeWilliam Eamon
Clyde Tombaugh
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Preface
Like that of any human activity, the history of astronomy has been played out under the influence of myriad cultural, institutional, political, sociological, technological, and natural forces. Any history that focuses only on the greatest participants in a field likely misses a great deal of interest and historical value. Inasmuch as astronomy is undertaken by and for human beings, therefore, its history cannot be limited to the lives and achievements of a narrow group.
Here we analyze the lives of people who, in our view, produced some substantial contribution to the field of astronomy, were involved in some important astronomical event, or were in some other manner important to the discipline. In doing so we do not discount the work of countless other journeyman astronomers without whom the science would not have progressed as it has.
ScopeBiographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers [BEA] entries presented here do not pretend to illuminate all aspects of a given person’s vita. More-over, some figures included are better known for their enterprises outside of astronomy. In these situations, their astronomical contributions are emphasized.
For many of our entries, the length is limited to something substantially less than 1,000 words due to the lack of available information. There is, of course, an inclination to write a great deal more about persons for whom there is a significant literature already available, e. g., Copernicus, Kepler, Newton, William Herschel, or Einstein. Many such individuals are covered in other standard resources, and we have not felt compelled to repeat all that is already published in those cases. In fact, we look at our entries as a guide to recent scholarship and a brief summary of the important facts about the lives involved. On the other hand, two-thirds of the entries in this encyclopedia are about individuals for whom there is no readily available standard source. In those cases, the length of the article may be longer than might be expected in comparison with those of better known astronomers, and reflects the fact that an entry offers the first (and perhaps only) easily available information about the astronomer involved: It is not difficult to find sources on “Greats” such as Galileo Galilei; however, it is hard to find information on Galilei’s acolyte, Mario Guiducci.
Citations within the text have been avoided to enhance readability. Nearly all articles end with a list of selected references. The reader is thus presented with opportunities for further research; no article is intended to be a dead end. Toward that end, if we do not provide additional resources for an entry, the subject will be cross-referenced within other articles for which we do provide selected references.
In compiling the selected references, we have tried to include difficult-to-identify secondary sources. At the same time we have largely excluded standard reference works and include only some of the latest canonical works covering the best-known figures in astronomy.
The BEA documents individuals born from Antiquity to approximately mid–1918. Subjects may be living or dead. While some ancient figures have become legendary, we have tried to avoid clearly mythological ones. For example, while the royal Chinese astronomers Ho and Hsi (supposedly third millennium BCE) appear in nearly every history of eclipses, they warrant no entry here.
This terminal birth date assures that the subjects written about have completed most of their careers, and that sufficient time likely has elapsed since their featured accomplishments that a historical perspective on their work is possible. Note that almost all of our subjects began their careers before the watershed transformation of astronomy brought about by the events of World War II. It is also true that the number of astronomers significantly increased after this time. Our youngest subject is Gérard de Vaucouleurs; our oldest is Homer.
Inclusion ParametersOur entry selection embraces a broad definition of the word “astronomer.” In modern science, little differentiation is made between the words “astronomy” and “astrophysics”; we do not use such a distinction here. For example, our definition includes astrometrists, cosmolo-gists, and planetologists. These three fields were considered separate and self-contained for most of human history. Cosmology, especially, requires the inclusion of many philosophers and theologians.
Early astronomers often also were astrologers. If they performed astronomical pursuits in addition to simple divination, we include them. Likewise, no distinction is made between the professional and the contributing amateur.
With the exception of a few important cases, instrument makers are included only if they pursued astronomical work with their instru-ments. Surveyors and cartographers are included if their study of the stars went beyond mere reference for terrestrial mapmaking. Lastly, a select group of authors, editors of astronomical journals, founders of astronomical societies, observatory builders and directors, astronomy historians, and patrons of astronomy are included.
A common pitfall in the history of science is to make the story of a discipline appear to be a single ladder ascending toward modern theory. Instead, it is a tree with many branches, only some of which have led to our current understanding of the Universe. Indeed, seemingly dead branches may become reanimated later in time. And branches may merge as ideas once considered unrelated are brought together. A better metaphor may be a vine, one with many grafts.
Scientists who contributed theories no longer held salient, or who made observations now considered suspect, nonetheless are included on our list if their effort was considered scientifically useful in its time, and the basis for further inquiry. At the same time, scientists whose ideas or techniques are now considered prescient, but who were unrecognized in their lifetimes, may appear as well.
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The contributions of persons selected for entries in this work were weighed in the context of their times. Thus, while a contribution made by a medieval scholar might seem small by today’s standards, it was significant for its era. We are especially proud of our inclusion of “non-western” figures who often have been given little treatment in histories of astronomy. Finally, we have included numerous entries of fewer than 100 words, some just a sentence or two, to introduce their names and place them in context within the broader vistas of astronomy.
Construction of the subject list was done by the editor-in-chief in consultation with the content editors. Well-known historian of astronomy Owen Gingerich generously volunteered his time to comment upon draft lists. Still, while an earnest attempt was made to make an objective selection of our more than 1,500 entries, responsibility for omissions must rest with the editor-in-chief. Most vulnerable to omission were those born in the last century.
Project StaffingAuthor solicitation was done by the editor-in-chief. Many of the shortest entries were crafted by the editor-in-chief; some but not most of these short entries were paraphrased from an unpublished typescript draft titled Biographical Dictionary of Astronomers, originally prepared by the historian Hector C. Macpherson in 1940. The standardized format of the articles was arrived at by consensus among the editors. Senior editor Thomas R. Williams’s Author Guidelines proved indispensable.
Editors were invited to join the project by the editor-in-chief. This editorial board includes, more-or-less equally, individuals who entered history-of-astronomy scholarship with a background either in history of science or in astronomy. (Some have both.) Unlike many encyclopedists, we did not use our editorial role to eradicate the individual writing styles of the authors.
Each content editor was assigned a thematic editorial responsibility, though all were called upon, at one time or another, to edit articles outside of this specialty. The assignments were as follows:
Classical and Medieval Astronomers—Katherine BracherRenaissance and Enlightenment Astronomers—Richard A. JarrellNineteenth Century Astronomers—Marvin BoltTwentieth Century Astronomers/Astrophysicists—Virginia TrimbleAstronomers of the Islamic World—Jamil RagepNonvocational Astronomers—Thomas R. WilliamsAstronomy Popularizers—Jordan D. Marché, IIAll content editors also contributed articles to the BEA. JoAnn Palmeri edited the vital references for all entries. Additionally she served
as our illustrations editor.For errata information, e-mail us at [email protected]
Thomas HockeyOctober 2005
Prefaceviii
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Acknowledgments
The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers [BEA] is above all the product of its authors. These 410 contributors hail from 40 different countries. Nearly every article is an original piece of scholarship. In some cases, scholars about whom entries were written were themselves gracious enough to write articles for us on other subjects.
At the heart of this 6-year project has been its board of editors. Contrary to what the narrow definition of this job title might imply, these people have been actively providing aid, comfort, and advice to the project, since its inception. As to their editorial contribution specifically, this was often far greater, and more time consuming, than is commonly assumed.
The BEA was the idea of Peter Binfield (then Business Development at Kluwer). Dr. Binfield’s assistant, Ms. Livia Iebba, also provided support “above and beyond.” Dr. Harry Blom, Springer’s Senior Editor for Astronomy and Astrophysics, traveled many kilometers to meet with the BEA editorial board and lend support on the long road to publication.
Usually unsung in a project of this nature are those individuals who did not write for us, but instead recommended other willing and qualified authors. Brevity permits me only two examples: Eva Isaksson of the University of Helsinki and Kevin Krisciunas of the Cerro Tololo Interamerican Observatory.
Brenda G. Corbin at the United States Naval Observatory kindly provided us with a manuscript copy of Hector Copland MacPherson’s Biographical Dictionary of Astronomers (1940), which was never published. We hope that its use in assembling the BEA is similar to what Dr. MacPherson had wished to achieve. Many, though not most, of the shortest entries in the BEA were paraphrased from MacPherson’s work.
Certain scholars consulted with us on astronomers of specific nationalities. We appreciate the assistance of Alexander A. Gurshtein (astronomers of the former USSR), Suzanne Débarbat (Francophone astronomers), Helge Kragh (Scandinavian astronomers), Robert Van Gent (Dutch), A. Vagiswari (Indian astronomers), Kevin D. Pang (Chinese astronomers), Jochi Shigeru (East Asian astronomers), and Rudi Paul Lindner (Byzantine astronomers).
The bibliographies of recent works in the history of astronomy published by Ruth Freitag (Library of Congress) were enormously useful. So was the Finding List of Obituary Notes of Astronomers (1900–1997) prepared by Hilmar Dürbeck and Beatrix Ott, with contributions by Wolfgang Dick. The Astrophysics Data System of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration was frequently accessed.
The effort of Daniel W. E. Green, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics and International Astronomical Union Center for Astronomical Telegrams, assured that the proper use of new International Astronomical Union comet and minor-planet nomenclatures was maintained.
H. Miller’s Thryomanes font facilitated communicating Arabic text between editors. Yuliana Ivakh helped the editor-in-chief with Cyrillic.Kari Aunan handled thousands of letters during the author-solicitation process. Wesley Even created and maintained the spreadsheet, so
necessary for keeping track of the data and long lists generated by the project. Rachel Wiekhorst operated the document scanner. Jeff Guntren prepared the Table of Contents. I am proud to say that all did so while being undergraduate students at the University of Northern Iowa.
Ruby Hockey undertook the cumbersome filing process.“Thank you” to the members of the Department of Earth Science, University of Northern Iowa [UNI], especially Lois Jerke. I relied on
their infrastructure and good humor greatly. Generous, too, was the support of Dean Kichoon Yang, UNI College of Natural Sciences. Linda Berneking of the UNI Donald O. Rod Library, Interlibrary Loan, also deserves special mention.
Editor Marvin Bolt would like to thank the Adler Planetarium and Astronomy Museum and the Program in the History and Philosophy of Science at the University of Notre Dame for research support.
Editor Katherine Bracher would like to acknowledge the advice and support of Cynthia W. Shelmerdine, Professor of Classics at the University of Texas at Austin.
Editor Jordan D. Marché, II thanks the Department of Astronomy at the University of Wisconsin-Madison for its strong support, and especially the Woodman Astronomical Library. Concurrently, he acknowledges the other libraries of the University of Wisconsin-Madison system and the Wisconsin State Historical Society Library.
Editor Jamil Ragep wishes to acknowledge Sally P. Ragep for editorial work behind the scenes and also Julio Samsó for help with Anda-lusian/North African astronomers.
Editor Virginia Trimble wishes to acknowledge the assistance of Leon Mestel, George Herbig, Meinhard Mayer, Harry Lustig, M. G. Rodriguez, Adriaan Blaauw, and Dimitri Klimushkin.
Editor Thomas R. Williams would like to acknowledge Peter Hingley, librarian of the Royal Astronomical Society, and Richard McKim, as well as the staff of Fondren Library at Rice University for their assistance.
The editorial board is grateful for the aid received from the many other scholars and librarians, too many to list here, who assisted with facts, citations, and general comments on individual entries. This public support is echoed by officers of the International Astronomical Union Commission 41 (History of Astronomy)/Inter-Union Commission for History of Astronomy, Ileana Chinnici and Wayne Orchiston, who, in the ICHA Newsletter #3 (2002), wrote regarding the Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomy: “While the formation of the ICHA came too late for it to be an active participant in the planning phase, we are happy to report that the ICHA Organizing Committee has given the project its whole-hearted support…”
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Foreword
In the past four decades, the history of astronomy and cosmology has grown into a professional research area, complete with a journal ( Journal for the History of Astronomy), sessions devoted to the subject at annual meetings of professional societies, and regular meetings of its own, such as the biennial meetings at the University of Notre Dame. Indeed, the field contains subspecialties, such as archaeoastronomy, that hold regular meetings of their own and have journals.
Astronomy is unique in several respects. First, although the research front in all sciences moves ever faster, constantly increasing the dis-tance between the practitioner and the subject’s history, in astronomy the time dimension plays a crucial role in current research (as opposed to, for instance, chemistry), and this means that past data, e. g., of eclipse or sunspot observations, continue to play a role in astronomical research. The historian of astronomy is often the intermediary between the astronomer and these data, especially for earlier periods. Second, among the exact sciences, astronomy is the only field in which amateurs continue to play an active, if supporting, role: In a number of cases professional astronomers rely on the services of the amateurs, and many of the services delivered by these amateurs are very professional indeed. But the lines demarking astronomers from historians and professionals from amateurs are not cut–and-dried. There are museum curators and planetarium educators who are amateurs astronomers or do highly professional research on historical periods, and there are professional astronomers who have an abiding interest in the history of their field for various reasons. And lest we forget, there are very large numbers of readers and television viewers with a passive interest in the history of astronomy for whom the human dimension of the quest to understand the heavens is crucial.
Many of the standard histories of astronomy date from the 1930s and 1950s. But these single-volume histories, which once served both as teaching tools and reference works, have become obsolete in the past few decades. More recent single-volume histories of astronomy can serve only as teaching tools and works of general interest. There has, thus, been a growing need for reference works that cover the results of research into the history of astronomy published in the past half century. Recently, two encyclopedias have been published, History of Astronomy: an Encyclopedia, edited by John Lankford, and Encyclopedia of Cosmology, edited by Norriss S. Hetherington. Concepts and issues are central in these works. The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers is a reference work that focuses on individuals; it adds the human dimension without which no science, or its history, can come to life.
Albert van HeldenUtrecht, September 2005
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Contributors
Victor K. AbalakinPulkovo Observatory
Mohammed AbattouyFez University
Leonard B. AbbeyIndependent Scholar
Helmut A. AbtKitt Peak National Observatory
Narahari AcharUniversity of Memphis
Meltem AkbasIstanbul University
Durruty Jesús de Alba MartinezUniversidad de Guadalajara
Roberto de Andrade MartinsUniversidade da Campinas
S. M. Razaullah AnsariAligarh Muslim University
Adam Jared AptIndependent Scholar
Stuart AtkinsonIndependent Scholar
David AubinUniversité Pierre-et-Marie Curie
Salim AydüzFatih University
Ennio BadolatiUniversità delgi Studi del Molise
Mohammad BagheriEncyclopaedia Islamica Foundation
Yuri V. BalashovUniversity of Georgia
Sallie BaliunasHarvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics
Alan BaragonaVirginia Military Institute
Edward BaronUniversity of Oklahoma
Raymonde BarthalotObservatoire de la Cote d’Azur
Alan H. BattenNational Research Council (Canada)
Richard BaumIndependent Scholar
Anthony F. BeaversUniversity of Evansville
Herbert BeebeNew Mexico State University
Martin BeechUniversity of Regina
Ari BelenkiyHebrew University
Trudy E. BellIndependent Scholar
Isaac BenguiguiUniversitat Geneva
J. Len BerggrenSimon Fraser University
Giuseppe BezzaIndependent Scholar
Charlotte BiggMax-Planck-Institut für Wissenschafts Geschichte
Albert BijaouiObservatoire de Nice
Adriaan BlaauwRijksuniversiteit Groningen
Nicolaas BloembergenHarvard University
Thomas J. BogdanUniversity of Colorado
Karl-Heinz BohmUniversity of Washington
Marvin BoltAdler Planetarium
Patrick J. BonerUniversity of Florida
Fabrizio BònoliBerrera Osservatorio
Alan J. BowdenLiverpool Museum
Alan C. BowenPrinceton University
Katherine BracherWhitman College
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xiv Contributors
Raffaello BragaIndependent Scholar
Ronald BrashearChemical Heritage Foundation
Sonja BrentjesAga Khan University
Peter BroughtonIndependent Scholar
C. Brown-SyedWayne State University
Mary T. BrückUniversity of Edinburgh
Charles BurnettWarburg Institute
Paul L. ButzerRheinisch-Westfalische Technische Hochschule
Chris K. CaldwellUniversity of Tennessee
Emilia CalvoUniversitad de Barcelona
Gary L. CameronIowa State University
Nicholas CampionBath Spa University College
Juan CasanovasVatican Observatory
Josep CasullerasUniversitad de Barcelona
Patrick A. CattIndependent Scholar
Roger CayrelObservatoire de Paris
Davide CenadelliOsservatorio di Brera
Michelle Chapront-TouzéObservatoire de Paris
Paul CharbonneauUniversity of Colorado
François CharetteLudwig-Maximilian University
Ileana ChinniciPalermo Osservatorio
J. S. R. ChisholmUniversity of Kent
Grant ChristieAukland Observatory
George W. ClarkSmithsonian Institution
Donald D. ClaytonClemson University
Mercè ComesUniversitad de Barcelona
Glen M. CooperBrigham Young University
Brenda G. CorbinUnited States Naval Observatory
Alan D. CorréUniversity of Wisconsin
Paul CouteauObservatoire de Nice
George V. CoyneVatican Observatory
Mary CroarkenUniversity of Warwick
Michael J. CroweUniversity of Notre Dame
David CunningNorthern Illinois University
Clifford J. CunninghamStar Lab Press
Martijn P. CuypersUniversiteit Leiden
Alex DalgarnoHarvard University
Dennis DanielsonUniversity of British Columbia
A. Clive DavenhallUniversity of Edinburgh
Suzanne DébarbatObservatoire de Paris
Robert K. DeKoskyUniversity of Kansas
Deng KehuiInner Mongolian Normal University
David DeVorkinSmithsonian Institution
Jozef T. DevreeseUniversiteit Antwerpen
David W. DewhirstCambridge University
Gregg DeYoungAmerican University in Cairo
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xvContributors
Alnoor DhananiInstitute of Ismaili Studies
Dimitris DialetisUniversity of Athens
Steven J. DickNational Aeronautics and Space Administration (USA)
Richard R. DidickIndependent Scholar
Thomas A. DobbinsIndependent Scholar
John W. DocktorIndependent Scholar
Audouin DollfusObservatoire de Paris
Emmanuel DormyInstitute de Physique du Globe de Paris
Matthew F. DowdUniversity of Notre Dame
Ellen Tan DrakeIndependent Scholar
Simone DumontObservatoire de Meudon
Wolcott B. Dunham, Jr.Fund for Astrophysics Research, Incorporated
Storm DunlopSussex University
Sven DupréUniversiteit Ghent
Ian T. DurhamUniversity of Saint Andrews
Suvendra Nath DuttaHarvard University
James DyeNorthern Illinois University
Frank K. EdmondsonIndiana University
Philip EdwardsInstitute of Space and Astronautical Science (UK)
Yuri N. EfremovMoscow State University
Alv EgelandUniversitet Oslo
Arthur J. EhlmannTexas Christian University
Ian ElliottDunsink Observatory
David S. EvansUniversity of Texas
Glenn S. EverettStonehill College
Peter S. ExcellUniversity of Bradford
Carl-Gunne FälthammarAlfvénlaboratoriet
İhsan FazlıoğluIstanbul University
Fernando B. FigueiredoInstituto Politécnico de Tomar
Maurice A. FinocchiaroUniversity of Nevada
Ronald FlorenceIndependent Scholar
Miquel ForcadaUniversitad de Barcelona
Kenneth W. FordNational Aeronautics and Space Administration (USA)
Malcolm R. ForsterUniversity of Wisconsin
Michael FosmirePurdue University
Harmut FrommertIndependent Scholar
Michael FrostIndependent Scholar
Patrick FuentesIndependent Scholar
George GaleUniversity of Misourri
Karl GalleUniversität Göttingen
Robert A. GarfinkleIndependent Scholar
Leonardo GariboldiUniversità delgi Studi di Milan
Roy H. GarstangUniversity of Colorado
Stephen GaukrogerUniversity of Sydney
Steven J. GibsonArecibo Observatory
Henry L. GiclasLowell Observatory
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xvi Contributors
Adam GillesObservatoire de Lyon
Owen GingerichHarvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics
M. Colleen GinoDudley Observatory
Ian S. GlassSouth African Astronomical Observatory
André GodduStonehill College
Gunther GörzUniversität Erlangen-Nürnberg
Daniel W. E. GreenHarvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics
Solange GrillotObservatoire de Paris
Monique GrosObservatoire de Paris & Université Pierre-et-Marie Curie
Jiří GrygarAkademie Ved, Ceská Republika
Françoise le Guet TullyObservatoire de la Côte d’Azur
Alastair G. GunnUniversity of Manchester
Guo ShirongInner Mongolian Normal University
Alexander A. GurshteinRussian Academy of Sciences
Fathi HabashiLaval University
Peter HabisonKuffner Sternwarte
Margherita HackOsservatorio Trieste
Petr HadravaAkademie Ved, Ceská Republika
Alena HadravováAkademie Ved, Ceská Republika
Graham HallUniversity of Aberdeen
Fernand HallynUniversiteit Ghent
Jürgen HamelMuseum für Astronomie und Technikgeschichte (Germany)
Truls Lynn HansenUniversitet Tromsø
Katherine HaramundanisHewlett Packard Company
Behnaz HashemipourIsfahan University of Technology
Robert Alan HatchUniversity of Florida
Christian E. Hauer, Jr.Westminster College
John HearnshawUniversity of Canterbury
Klaus HentschelUniversität Göttingen
Dieter B. HerrmannIndependent Scholar
Norriss S. HetheringtonIndependent Scholar
Donald W. HillgerColorado State University
John HiltonUniversity of Natal
Alan W. HirshfeldUniversity of Massachusetts
Thomas HockeyUniversity of Northern Iowa
Laurent HodgesIowa State University
Dorrit HoffleitYale University
Julian HollandUniversity of Sydney
Gustav HolmbergLunds Universitet
Gerald HoltonHarvard University
Elliott HorchRensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Léo HouziauxAcadémie Royale (Belgium)
Mark HurnCambridge University
Robert J. HurryCalvert Marine Museum
Gary HussUniversity of Hawaii
Roger D. HutchinsOxford University
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xviiContributors
Siek HyungBohyunsan Optical Astronomy Observatory
Saori IharaKochi University
Satoru IkeuchiNagoya University
Setsuro IkeyamaIndependent Scholar
Balthasar IndermühleIndependent Scholar
Francine JacksonUniversity of Rhode Island
Richard A. JarrellYork University
David JefferiesUniversity of Surrey
Derek JensenUniversity of California at San Diego
Mihkel JoeveerTartu Astrophuusika Observatoorium
J. Bryn JonesUniversity of Nottingham
Mustafa KaçarIstanbul University
Horst KantMax-Planck-Institut für Wissenschafts Geschichte
Hannu KarttunenIndependent Scholar
Katalin KèriJanus Ponnonius University
Paul T. KeyserCornell University
Elaheh KheirandishHarvard University
Kevin J. KilburnUniversity of Manchester
Stamatios KimigisJohns Hopkins University
David A. KingJohann Wolfgang Göthe Universität
Thomas D. KinmanKitt Peak National Observatory
Gyula KlimaFordham University
Thomas KlötiUniversität Bern
Gillian KnappUniversity of Washington
Oliver KnillHarvard University
Wolfgang KokottUniversität München
Daniel KolakWilliam Paterson University
Nicholas KollerstromUniversity College of London
Anne J. KoxUniversiteit Amsterdam
Yoshihide KozaiNational Astronomical Obervatory of Japan
Helge KraghUniversitet Aarhus
John KrausOhio State University
Henk KubbingaRijksuniversiteit Groningen
Suhasini KumarUniversity of Toledo
Paul KunitzschLudwig-Maximilian Universität
Takanori KusubaOsaka University
Alistair KwanUniversity of Melbourne
Claud H. LacyUniversity of Arkansas
Keith R. LafortuneUniversity of Notre Dame
Edgar LairdSouthwest Texas State University
Cindy LammensUniversiteit Ghent
Jérôme LamyObservatoire de Paris
Harry G. LangRochester Institute of Technology
Y. Tzvi LangermannBar Ilan University
James M. LattisUniversity of Wisconsin at Madison
Françoise LaunayObservatoire de Meudon
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xviii Contributors
Raimo LehtiTekniska Högskolan
Jacques M. LévyObservatoire de Paris
Li DiInner Mongolian Normal University
Kurt LiffmanCommonwealth Science and Industrial Research Organization
(Australia)
Rudi Paul LindnerUniversity of Michigan
Jean-Pierre LuminetObservatoire de Paris
Gene M. LutzUniversity of Northern Iowa
Kirsten LutzIndependent Scholar
Brian LuzumUnited States Naval Observatory
Joseph F. MacDonnellHolycross University
H. Clark MadduxIndiana University at Kokomo
Jordan D. Marché, IIUniversity of Wisconsin at Madison
Theresa MarchéUniversity of Kutztown Pennsylvania
Tapio MarkkanenTekniska Högskolan
Brian G. MarsdenHarvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics
M. J. MartresObservatoire de Paris
Ursula B. MarvinHarvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics
Sergei MaslikovTomsk State University
Kenneth MayersUniversitet Bergen
Dennis D. McCarthyUnited States Naval Observatory
John McFarlandArmagh Observatory
Robert D. McGownIndependent Scholar
Donald J. McGrawUniversity of San Diego
John M. McMahonLemoyne College
Marjorie Steele MeinelNational Aeronautics and Space Administration (USA)
John MenziesSouth African Astronomical Observatory
Michael MeoIndependent Scholar
Raymond MercierIndependent Scholar
Mark D. MeyersonUnited States Naval Academy
Michael E. MickelsonDenison University
Jan MietelskiUniversitas Iagellonica Cracoviensis
Cirilo Flórez MiguelUniversitad de Salamanca
Eugene F. MiloneUniversity of Calgary
Kristian Peder MoesgaardSteno Museet
Patrick MooreBritish Broadcasting Company
Nidia Irene MorrellUniversidad Nacional de La Plata
James MorrisonUniversity of Waterloo
Robert MorrisonWhitman College
Adam MosleyCambridge University
George S. MumfordTufts University
Marco MuraraIndependent Scholar
Paul MurdinCambridge Institute of Astronomy
Negar NaderiEncyclopaedia Islamica Foundation
Victor Navarro-BrotónsUniversidad de Valencia
Davide NeriUniversità di Bologna
Claudia NetzIndependent Scholar
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xixContributors
Christian NitschelmUniversiteit Antwerpen
Peter NockoldsIndependent Scholar
Marilyn Bailey OgilvieUniversity of Oklahoma
Takeshi OkaUniversity of Chicago
Timothy O’KeefeUniversity of Minnesota
Ednilson OliveiraUniversidade de Sao Paolo
Wayne OrchistonAnglo-Australian Observatory
JoAnn PalmeriUniversity of Oklahoma
Kevin D. PangCalifornia Institute of Technology
Jay M. PasachoffWilliams College
Naomi PasachoffIndependent Scholar
Stuart F. PawseyIndependent Scholar
Mariafortuna PietroluongoUniversità di Molise
Luisa PigattoOsservatorio Padova
Christof A. PlichtIndependent Scholar
Kim PlofkerUniversität Utrecht
Patrick PoitevinIndependent Scholar
Roser PuigUniversitad de Barcelona
F. Jamil RagepMcGill University
Sally P. RagepUniversity of Oklahoma
Steven L. RenshawKochi University
Michael RichUniversity of California at Los Angeles
Lutz Richter-BernburgUniversität Tübingen
Michael S. ReidyUniversity of Wisconsin
Peter RileyUniversity of Texas
Mònica RiusUniversitad de Barcelona
Leif J. RobinsonSky and Telescope
Nadia RobottiUniversità degli Studi di Genova
John RogersCambridge University
Stanislaw RokitaPlanetarium Wladyslawa Dziewulskiego
Philipp W. RosemanUniversity of Dallas
Eckehard RothenbergArchenhold-Sternwarte
Marc RothenbergSmithsonian Institution
Tamar M. RudavskyOhio State University
M. Eugene RuddUniversity of Nebraska
Steven RuskinUniversity of Notre Dame
David M. RustJohns Hopkins University
John J. SaccomanSeaton Hall University
K. SakuraiKanagawa University
Michael SaladygaAmerican Association of Variable Star Observers
Julio SamsóUniversitad de Barcelona
Voula SaridakisVirginia Technological University
Hüseyin SarıoğluIstanbul University
Ke Ve SarmaSSES Research Centre (India)
Gilbert E. SatterthwaiteImperial College (UK)
Peggy Huss SchallerCollections Research for Museums
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xx Contributors
Petra G. SchmidlJohann Wolfgang Göthe Universität
Anneliese SchnellUniversität Wiena
Paul A. SchonsUniversity of Saint Thomas
Ronald A. SchornUniversity of Texas
Douglas ScottUniversity of British Columbia
Mary Woods ScottOhio State University
R. W. SharplesUniversity College of London
Stephen ShectmanCarnegie Observatories
William SheehanIndependent Scholar
Steven N. ShoreUniversità di Pisa
Edward SionVillanova University
Lucas SiorvanesKing’s College of London
Lorenzo SmerilloBiblioteca Nazionale Protocenobio Sublacense
Charles H. SmithWestern Kentucky University
Horace A. SmithMichigan State University
Laura Ackerman SmollerUniversity of Arkansas
Keith SnedegarUtah Valley State College
Stephen D. SnobelenUniversity of King’s College
Martin SolcUniverzita Karlova
Kerstin SpringsfeldRheinisch-Westfalische Technische Hochschule
Frieda A. StahlCalifornia State University at Los Angeles
Matthew StanleyIowa State University
Donn R. StarkeyIndependent Scholar
David StraussKalamazoo College
David J. SturdyUniversity of Ulster
Woodruff T. Sullivan, IIIUniversity of Washington
Raghini S. SureshKent State University
Jeff SuzukiBrooklyn College
László SzabadosKonkoly Obszervatórium
Richard J. TaibiIndependent Scholar
Hidemi TakahashiJohann Wolfgang Göthe Universität
Scott W. TeareMount Wilson Observatory
Pekka TeerikorpiTurku University
Antonio E. TenUniversidad de Valencia
Joseph S. TennSonoma State University
Antonella TestaUniversità di Milan
Christian TheisUniversität Kiel
William TobinUniversity of Canterbury
Hüseyin Gazi TopdemirAnkara University
Roberto TorrettiUniversity of Puerto Rico
Tim TrachetZenit
Virginia TrimbleUniversity of California at Irvine & Las Cumbres Observatory
Jean-Louis TrudelUniversité du Quebec
Giancarlo TruffaIndependent Scholar
Milcho TsvetkovBulgarian Academy of Sciences
Pasquale TucciUniversità di Milan
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xxiContributors
Steven TurnerSmithsonian Institution
Arthur UpgrenWesleyan University
A. VagiṣwariIndian Institute of Astrophysics
Ezio VailatiSouthern Illinois University
David Valls-GabardObservatoire de Paris
Glen Van BrummelenBennington College
Benno van DalenJohann Wolfgang Göthe Universität
Guido Van den BergheUniversiteit Ghent
Petra Van der HeijdenUniversiteit Leiden
Frans van LunterenUniversiteit Utrecht
Steven M. van RoodeIndependent Scholar
Ilan VardiCalifornia Institute of Technology
Yatendra P. VarshniUniversity of Ottawa
Gerald P. VerbruggheRutgers University
Andreas VerdunUniversität Bern
Graziella VescoviniUniversità di Firenze
Živa VeselCentre National de la Recherche Scientifique (France)
Jan VondrákObservatória na Skalnatom Plese
Bert G. WachsmuthSeaton Hall University
Christoffel WaelkensUniversiteit Leuven
Craig B. WaffIndependent Scholar
Glenn A. WalshIndependent Scholar
Alun WardIndependent Scholar
Gary A. WegnerDartmouth College
Gerald WhiteIndependent Scholar
Raymond E. WhiteUniversity of Arizona
Patricia S. WhitesellUniversity of Michigan
Sven WidmalmUppsala Universitet
Roland WielenAstronomisches Rechen-Institut
Christian WildbergPrinceton University
Richard P. WildsIndependent Scholar
Thomas R. WilliamsRice University
Thomas Nelson WinterUniversity of Nebraska
Peter WlasukFlorida International University
Bernd WöbkeMax-Planck-Institut für Aeronomie
Lodewijk WoltjerObservatoire de Saint Michel
Shin YabushitaNara Sangyo University
Keiji YamamotoKyoto Sangyo University
Michio YanoKyoto Sangyo University
Hamid-Reza Giahi YazdiEncyclopaedia Islamica Foundation
Donald K. YeomansNational Aeronautics and Space Administration (USA)
Robinson M. YostIowa State University
Miloslav ZejdaPráce Hvezdárny a Planetária Mikuláše Koperníka
Endre ZsoldosKonkoly Obszervatórium
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Table of Entries
�Abbās Wasīm EfendiAbbe, ClevelandAbbo of [Abbon de] FleuryAbbot, Charles GreeleyAbbott, Francis�Abd al-Wājid: Badr al-Dīn �Abd al-Wājid [Wāḥid] ibn
Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-ḤanafīAbetti, AntonioAbetti, GiorgioAbharī: Athīr al-Dīn al-Mufaḍḍal ibn �Umar ibn al-Mufaḍḍal al-
Samarqandī al-AbharīAbney, William de WiveleslieAbū al-Ṣalt: Umayya ibn �Abd al-�Azīz ibn Abī al-Ṣalt al-Dānī al-
Andalusī Albuzale
Abū al-�Uqūl: Abū al-�Uqūl Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad al-ṬabarīAbū Ma�shar Ja�far ibn Muḥammad ibn �Umar al-Balkhi
AlbumasarAcyuta PiṣāraṭiĀdami: Abū �Alī al-Ḥusayn ibn Muḥammad al-ĀdamiAdams, John CouchAdams, Walter SydneyAdel, ArthurAdelard of BathAdhémar, Joseph-AlphonseAeschylusAḥmad Mukhtār: Ghāzī Aḥmad Mukhtār PashaAinslie, Maurice AndersonAiry, George BiddellAitken, Robert GrantAlbert the Great
Albertus MagnusAlbrecht, SebastianAlcuin
AlchvineEalhwineFlaccus Albinus
Alden, Harold LeeAlexander, Arthur Francis O’DonelAlexander, StephenAlfonsi, PetrusAlfonso X
Alfonso el SabioAlfonso the LearnedAlfonso the Wise
Alfvén, Hannes Olof Gösta�Alī al-Muwaqqit: Muṣliḥ al-Dīn Muṣṭafā ibn �Alī al-Qusṭanṭīnī
al-Rūmī al-Ḥanafī al-Muwaqqit
�Alī ibn �īsā al-Asṭurlābī�Alī ibn Khalaf: Abū al-Ḥasan ibn Aḥmar al-Ṣaydalānī
�Alī ibn Khalaf ibn Aḥmar Akhīr [Akhiyar]Alighieri, DanteAllen, Clabon WalterAller, Lawrence HughAlvarez, Luis WalterAmājūr FamilyAmbartsumian, Victor AmazaspovitchAmici, Giovanni Battista�Ᾱmilī: Bahā al-Dīn Muḥammad ibn Ḥusayn al-�ĀmilīAmmoniusAnaxagoras of ClazomenaeAnaximander of MiletusAnaximenes of MiletusAndalò di Negro of GenoaAnderson, Carl DavidAnderson, John AugustAnderson, Thomas DavidAndoyer, Marie-HenriAndré, M. CharlesÅngström, Anders JonasAnthelme, VoituretAntoniadi, Eugéne MichaelApian, Peter
Petrus ApianusApollonius of PergaAppleton, Edward VictorAquinas, ThomasArago, Dominique-François-JeanAratusArchelaus of AthensArchenhold, Friedrich SimonArchimedesArchytas of TarentumArgelander, Friedrich Wilhelm AugustArgoli, AndreaAristarchus of SamosAristotleAristyllusArrhenius, Svante AugustĀryabhaṭa I
Āryabhaṭa the ElderĀryabhaṭa II
Āryabhaṭa the YoungerAsada, Goryu
YasuakiAscham [Askham], Anthony
Names preceded by an article or preposition are alphabetized by the next word in the name.There are two exceptions: One is the Dutch “Van,” “Van de,” “Van den,” and “Van der.” Another is “Warren De La Rue” (alphabetized under D). (Arabic names are alphabetized under the shortened version of the name.)
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xxiv Table of Entries
Ashbrook, JosephAshraf: al-Malik al-Ashraf (Mumahhid al-Dīn) �Umar ibn Yūsuf
ibn �Umar ibn �Alī ibn RasūlAston, Francis WilliamAtkinson, Robert d’EscourtAugustine of Hippo
Aurelianus AugustinusAutolycusAuwers, Arthur Julius Georg Friedrich vonAuzout, Adrien
Baade, Wilhelm Heinrich WalterBabcock, Harold DelosBabcock, Horace WelcomeBabinet, JacquesBache, Alexander DallasBackhouse, Thomas WilliamBacklund, Jöns OskarBacon, FrancisBacon, RogerBailey, Solon IrvingBaillaud, Edouard-BenjaminBailly, Jean-SylvainBaily, FrancisBainbridge, JohnBaize, Paul-Achille-ArielBaker, James GilbertBaldwin, Ralph BelknapBall, Robert StawellBalmer, Johann JakobBanachiewicz, Thaddeus JulianBanneker, BenjaminBanū MūsāBär, Nicholaus Reymers
Raimarus UrsusBarbier, DanielBarhebraeus: Gregory Abū al-Faraj
Grīḡōriyōs Bar �EḇrāyāGrīḡōriyōs Bar �Eḇroyo
Bar Ḥiyya: Abraham bar Ḥiyya SavasordaBarker, ThomasBarnard, Edward EmersonBarnothy, Jeno M.Barnothy Forro, MadeleineBarozzi, Francesco
Franciscus BarociusBarringer, Daniel MoreauBartholin, ErasmusBartholomaeus AnglicusBartsch, Jakob
BartschiusBates, David RobertBateson, Frank MaineBattānī: Abū �Abd Allāh Muḥammad ibn Jābir ibn Sinān al-Battānī
al-Ḥarrānī al-Ṣābi’Albategnius [Albatenius]
Baxendell, JosephBayer, Johann
Beals, Carlyle SmithBecquerel, Alexandre-EdmondBečvář, AntonínBedeBeer, WilhelmBehaim, Martin
Martin of BohemiaBelopolsky, Aristarkh ApollonovichBen Solomon: Judah ben Solomon ha-KohenBennot, Maude VeronaBenzenberg, Johann FriedrichBergstrand, ÖstenBerman, LouisBernard of Le Treille
Bernardus de TriliaBernoulli, DanielBernoulli, Jacob [Jacques, James]Bernoulli, Johann IIIBerossusBessel, Friedrich WilhelmBethe, Hans AlbrechtBevis [Bevans], JohnBeyer, MaxBhāskara IBhāskara IIBianchini, Francesco
Blanchinus, FranciscoBickerton, Alexander WilliamBiela, Wilhelm Freiherr vonBiermann, Ludwig Franz BenediktBigourdan, Camille GuillaumeBilly, Jacques deBiot, Edouard-ConstantBiot, Jean-BaptisteBirjandī: �Abd al-�Alī ibn Muḥammad ibn Ḥusayn al-BirjandīBirkeland, Kristian Olaf BernhardBirkhoff, George DavidBirmingham, JohnBirt, William RadcliffBīrūnī: Abū al-Rayḥān Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad al-BīrūnīBiṭrūjī: Nūr al-Dīn Abū Isḥāq [Abū Ja�far] Ibrāhīm ibn Yūsuf
al-BiṭrūjīAlpetragius
Bjerknes, Vilhelm Frimann KorenBlaauw, AdriaanBlackett, Patrick Maynard Stuart
Baron Blackett of ChelseaBlagg, Mary AdelaBlazhko, Sergei NikolaevichBliss, NathanielBobrovnikoff, Nicholas TheodoreBochart de Saron [Bochart-Saron], Jean-Baptiste-GaspardBode, Johann ElertBoëthius, Anicius Manlius Torquatus SeverinusBoguslawsky, Palon [Palm] Heinrich Ludwig vonBohlin, Karl Petrus TeodorBohr, Niels Henrik DavidBok, Bart Jan
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xxvTable of Entries
Bond, George PhillipsBond, William CranchBorda, Jean-Charles deBorelli, Giovanni Francesco Antonio AlfonsoBoskovic, Rudjer [Roger] J.Boss, BenjaminBoss, LewisBouguer, PierreBoulliau, IsmaëlBour, EdmondBouvard, AlexisBowditch, NathanielBowen, Ira SpragueBower, Ernest ClareBoyer, CharlesBradley, JamesBradwardine, ThomasBrahe, Tycho [Tyge] OttsenBrahmaguptaBrandes, Heinrich WilhelmBrashear, John AlfredBredikhin, Fyodor AleksandrovichBredon, SimonBremiker, CarlBrenner, Leo
Gopčević, SpiridionBrinkley, JohnBrisbane, Thomas MakdougallBrooks, William RobertBrorsen, Theodor Johann Christian AmbdersBrouwer, DirkBrown, Ernest WilliamBrown, Robert Hanbury
Hanbury Brown, RobertBrück, Hermann AlexanderBrudzewski, Albertus de
Albertus Blar de BrudzewoAlbert Brudzewski
Bruhns, Karl [Carl] ChristianBrünnow, Franz Friedrich ErnstBruno, GiordanoBunsen, Robert Wilhelm EberhardBuot [Buhot], JacquesBurckhardt, Johann Karl [Jean-Charles]Bürgi, Jost [Joost, Jobst]Buridan, JohnBurnham, Sherburne WesleyBurrau, CarlBūzjānī: Abū al-Wafā’ Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad ibn Yaḥyā
al-BūzjānīByrd, Mary Emma
Cacciatore, NiccolòCalandrelli, GiuseppeCalandrelli, IgnazioCalcagnini, CelioCallippus of Cyzikus
Kãllippow
Campani, GiuseppeCampanus of NovaraCampbell, LeonCampbell, William WallaceCamus, Charles-Étienne-LouisCannon, Annie JumpCapella, Martianus (Felix) Mineus [Minneius, Minneus]Capra, BaldassarreCardano, GirolamoCarlini, FrancescoCarpenter, JamesCarrington, Richard ChristopherCassegrain, LaurentCassini de Thury, César-François
Cassini IIICassini, Giovanni Domenico [Jean-Dominique]
Cassini ICassini, Jacques
Cassini IICassini, Jean-Dominique
Cassini IVCassiodorus, Flavius Magnus AureliusCastelli, Benedetto (Antonio)Cauchy, Augustin-LouisCavalieri, Bonaventura (Francesco)Cavendish, HenryCayley, ArthurCeloria, GiovanniCelsius, AndersCerulli, VincenzoCesi, FedericoChacornac, JeanChalcidiusChallis, JamesChalonge, DanielChamberlin, Thomas ChrowderChandler, Seth Carlo, Jr.Chandrasekhar, SubrahmanyanChant, Clarence AugustusChapman, SydneyChappe d’Auteroche, Jean-BaptisteCharlier, Carl Vilhelm LudvigCharlois, AugusteChaucer, GeoffreyChauvenet, WilliamChemla-Lameche, Felix
Lamech, FelixChen KuiChen Zhuo
Ch’en ChoChiaramonti, ScipioneChioniades, Gregor [George]Chladni, Ernst Florens FriedrichCholgi: Maḥmūd Shāh Cholgi
Khaljī: Maḥmūd Shāh KhaljīChristiansen, Wilbur NormanChristie, William Henry MahoneyChristmann, Jacob
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xxvi Table of Entries
Chrysippus of SoloiCicero, Marcus TulliusClairaut, Alexis-ClaudeClark FamilyClausen, ThomasClavius, ChristophClemence, Gerald MauriceCleomedesCleostratus of TenedosClerke, Agnes MaryCoblentz, William WeberCole, HumphreyComas Solá, JoséCommon, Andrew AinslieCompton, Arthur HollyComrie, Leslie JohnComstock, George CaryComte, Auguste (Isidore-Auguste-Marie-François-Xavier)Condamine, Charles-Marie de laConon of SamosCooper, Edward JoshuaCopeland, RalphCopernicus [Coppernig, Copernik], Nicolaus [Nicholas]
Koppernigk, Nicolaus [Nicholas]Cornu, Marie AlfredCosmas IndicopleustesCosserat, Eugène-Maurice-PierreCotes, RogerCouderc, PaulCousins, Alan William JamesCowell, Philip HerbertCowling, Thomas GeorgeCrabtree, WilliamCraig, JohnCritchfield, Charles LouisCroll, JamesCrommelin, Andrew Claude de la CheroisCrosthwait, JosephCuffey, JamesCunitz [Cunitia, Cunitiae], Maria
Kunicia, MariaCurtis, Heber DoustCurtiss, Ralph HamiltonCurtz, AlbertCysat, Johann Baptist
d’Agelet, Josephd’Ailly, Pierre
Petrus de AlliacoPeter of Ailli
d’Alembert [Dalembert], Jean-Le-Rondd’Arrest, Heinrich Louis [Ludwig]d’Aurillac, Gerbert
Pope Sylvester IId’Azambuja, LucienDaly, Reginald AldworthDamoiseau, Marie-Charles-Théodore deDanjon, André-LouisDanti, Egnatio
Rainaldi, Carlo PellegrinoDārandawī: Muḥammad ibn �Umar ibn �Uthmān al-Dārandawī
al-ḤanafīDarquier de Pellepoix, AntoineDarwin, George HowardDaśabalaDavis, Charles HenryDavis Locanthi, Dorothy N.
Locanthi, Dorothy N.Davis, Raymond Jr.Dawes, WilliamDawes, William RutterDawson, BernhardDe La Rue, WarrenDee, JohnDelambre, Jean-Baptiste-JosephDelaunay, Charles-EugèneDelisle, Joseph-NicolasDelporte, Eugène-JosephDembowski, Ercole [Hercules]Democritus of AbderaDenning, William FrederickDerham, WilliamDescartes, RenéDeslandres, Henri-AlexandreDeutsch, Armin JosephDick, ThomasDicke, Robert HenryDigges, LeonardDigges, ThomasDinakaraDingle, HerbertDiogenes of ApolloniaDionis du Séjour, Achille-PierreDionysius ExiguusDirac, Paul Adrien MauriceDivini, EustachioDixon, JeremiahDollond, JohnDollond, PeterDombr ovskij [Dombrovsky, Dombrovski],
Viktor AlekseyevichDonati, Giovan BattistaDonner, Anders SeverinDoppelmayer [Doppelmayr], Johann GabrielDoppler, Johann ChristianDörffel, Georg SamuelDôsitheus of PêlousionDouglass, Andrew EllicottDraper, HenryDraper, John WilliamDreyer, John Louis EmilDudits [Dudith, Duditus], András [Andreas]Dufay, JeanDugan, Raymond SmithDunash ibn TamimDuncan, John CharlesDunér, Nils ChristofferDungal of Saint Denis
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xxviiTable of Entries
Dunham, Theodore, Jr.Dunthorne, RichardDürer, AlbrechtDymond, JosephDyson, Frank WatsonDziewulski, Wladyslaw
Easton, CornelisEckert, Wallace JohnEcphantusEddington, Arthur StanleyEdlén, BengtEichstad, Lorenz
Laurentius EichstadiusEimmart, George ChristophEinhardEinstein, AlbertElger, Thomas Gwyn EmpyElkin, William LewisEllerman, FerdinandEllery, Robert Lewis JohnEllicott, AndrewEllison, Mervyn ArchdallElvey, Christian ThomasEmden, RobertEmpedocles of AcragasEncke, Johann FranzEngel, Johannes
AngelusEngelhard, NicolausEnsor, George EdmundEphorusEpicurus of SamosEratosthenes of CyreneErro, Luis EnriqueEsclangon, Ernest-BenjaminEspin, Thomas Henry Espinall ComptonEuctemonEudemus of RhodesEudoxusEuler, LeonhardEutociusEvans, David StanleyEvans, John WainrightEvershed, JohnEvershed, Mary Acworth Orr
Fabricius, DavidFabricius, Johann
Goldsmid, JohannFabry, Marie-Paul-Auguste-CharlesFallows, FearonFārābī: Abū Naṣr Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad ibn
Tarkhān al-FārābīAlfarabius
Farghānī: Abū al-�Abbās Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad ibn Kathīr al-Farghānī
Fārisī: Muḥammad ibn Abī Bakr al-FārisīFath, Edward Arthur
Fauth, Philipp Johann HeinrichFaye, HervéFazārī: Muḥammad ibn Ibrāhīm al-FazārīFederer, Charles Anthony, Jr.Feild, JohnFényi, Gyula
Finck, JuliusFerguson, JamesFernel, Jean-FrançoisFerraro, Vincenzo Consolato AntoninoFerrel, WilliamFesenkov, Vasilii GrigorevichFèvre, Jean leFiné, Oronce
Orontius FinaeusFinlay, William HenryFinsen, William S.Fisher, OsmondFisher, Willard JamesFitzGerald, George FrancisFixlmillner, PlacidusFizeau, Armand-Hippolyte-LouisFlammarion, Nicolas CamilleFlamsteed, JohnFlaugergues, HonoréFleming, Williamina Paton StevensFocas, John HenryFontana, FrancescoFontenelle, Bernard le Bovier [Bouyer] deForbush, Scott EllsworthFord, Clinton BankerFoucault, Jean-Bernard-LéonFouchy, Jean-Paul
Fouchy, Grandjean deFowler, AlfredFowler, Ralph HowardFowler, William AlfredFox, PhilipFracastoro, GirolamoFranklin-Adams, JohnFranks, William SadlerFranz, Julius Heinrich G.Fraunhofer, Joseph vonFreundlich, Erwin
Finlay-Freundlich, ErwinFriedman, HerbertFriedmann, Alexander AlexandrovichFrisi, PaoloFrisius, Gemma Reinerus
RegnerusFromondus, LibertusFrost, Edwin BrantFu AnFurness, Caroline EllenFusoris, Jean [Johanne]
Gaillot, Jean-Baptiste-AimableGalilei, GalileoGalle, Johann Gottfried
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xxviii Table of Entries
Gallucci, Giovanni PaoloGambart, Jean-Félix-AdolpheGamow, George [Georgiy] (Antonovich)Gan DeGaṇeśaGaposchkin, Sergei [Sergej] IllarionovichGarfinkel, BorisGascoigne, WilliamGasparis, Annibale deGassendi, PierreGauss, Carl FriedrichGautier, Jean-AlfredGeddes, MurrayGeminusGemma, CorneliusGentil de la Galaisière, Guillaume-Joseph-Hyacinthe
Jean-Baptiste leGerard of Cremona
Gerardus CremonensisGerasimovich [Gerasimovič], Boris PetrovichGersonides: Levi ben GersonGilbert, Grove KarlGilbert [Gilberd], WilliamGildemeister, JohannGiles of Rome
Aegidius RomanusAegidius Colonna [Columna]
Gill, DavidGillis, James MelvilleGingrich, Curvin HenryGinzburg [Ginsberg], Vitaly LazarevichGiovanelli, Ronald GordonGlaisher, JamesGlaisher, James Whitbread LeeGodin, LouisGodwin, FrancisGökmen, Mehmed FatinGoldberg, LeoGoldschmidt, Hermann Chaim MeyerGoodacre, WalterGoodricke, JohnGore, John EllardGorton, SandfordGothard, Jenõ [Eugen] vonGould, Benjamin ApthorpGraham, GeorgeGrassi, HoratioGray, StephenGreaves, JohnGreaves, William Michael HerbertGreen, CharlesGreen, Nathaniel EverettGreenstein, Jesse LeonardGreenwood, NicholasGregoras, NicephorosGregory [Gregorie], DavidGregory, James
Gregory of ToursGrienberger, ChristopherGrigg, JohnGrimaldi, Francesco MariaGroombridge, StephenGrosseteste, RobertGrotrian, WalterGrubb, HowardGrubb, ThomasGruithuisen, Franz von PaulaGuiducci, MarioGuillemin, Amédée-VictorGuo Shoujing
Kuo Shou-chingGuthnick, PaulGyldén, Johan August Hugo
Haas, Walter HenryḤabash al-Ḥāsib: Abū Ja�far Aḥmad ibn �Abd Allāh al-MarwazīHadley, JohnHagen, Johann GeorgHagihara, YusukeHahn, Graf Friedrich vonHájek z Hájku, Tadeá
Thaddaeus Hageciusab Hayck, TadeáNemicus, TadeáAgecio, Tadeá
Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf ibn MaṭarHalbach, Edward AnthonyHale, George ElleryHall, AsaphHall, John ScovilleHalley, EdmondHalm, Jacob Karl ErnstHansen, Peter AndreasHansteen, ChristopherHarding, Carl LudwigHaridatta IHarkness, WilliamHaro Barraza, GuillermoHarper, William EdmundHarriot, ThomasHartmann, Johannes FranzHartwig, Carl Ernst AlbrechtHārūn al-RashīdHāshimī: �Alī ibn Sulaymān al-HāshimīHatanaka, TakeoHay, William ThomsonHeckmann, Otto Hermann LeopoldHegel, Georg Wilhelm FriedrichHeis, Edward [Eduard, Edouard]Helicon of CyzicusHeliodorus of AlexandriaHelmholtz, Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand vonHencke, Karl LudwigHenderson, Thomas
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xxixTable of Entries
Henry, JosephHenry of Langenstein
Henry of Hesse the ElderHeinrich von Langenstein
Henry, Paul Pierre and Prosper-MathieuHenyey, Louis GeorgeHeraclides of Heraclea
Heraclides of PontusHeraclides Ponticus
Heraclitus of EphesusHeraclitus the RiddlerHeraclitus the Obscure
Herget, PaulHerman, RobertHermann the DalmatianHermann the Lame
Reichenau, Hermann vonHermannus Contractus
Herrick, EdwardHerschel, Alexander StewartHerschel, Caroline LucretiaHerschel, John (Jr.)Herschel, John Frederick WilliamHerschel, (Friedrich) William [Wilhelm]Hertzsprung, Ejnar [Einar]Herzberg, GerhardHesiodHess, Victor Franz [Francis]Hevel, Johannes
HeveliusHevelius, Catherina Elisabetha KoopmanHey, (James) StanleyHicetus
NicetusHiggs, George Daniel SuttonHildegard of Bingen-am-RhineHill, George WilliamHiltner, William AlbertHind, John RussellHinks, Arthur RobertHiorter, OlofHipparchus of NicaeaHippocrates of ChiosHirayama, KiyotsuguHire, Philippe de laHirst, George DentonHirzgarter, MatthiasHoek, MartinusHoffleit, Ellen DorritHoffmeister, CunoHogg, Frank ScottHolden, Edward SingletonHöll, Miksa
Hell, MaximilianHolmberg, ErikHolwarda, Johannes Phocylides [Fokkens]Homer
Honda, MinoruHonter, JohannesHooke, RobertHörbiger, HannsHorn d’Arturo, GuidoHornsby, ThomasHorrebow, ChristianHorrebow, Peder NielsenHorrocks [Horrox], JeremiahHough, George WashingtonHough, Sydney SamuelHoutermans, Friedrich GeorgHouzeau de Lehaie, Jean-Charles-Hippolyte-JosephHoyle, FredHubble, Edwin PowellHuggins, Margaret Lindsay MurrayHuggins, WilliamHulburt, Edward OlsonHumason, Milton LassellHumboldt, Alexander Friedrich Heinrich vonHumphreys, William JacksonḤusayn, Ḥasan and MuḥammadHussey, William JosephHuth, Johann Sigismund GottfriedHuygens, ChristiaanHypatiaHypsicles of Alexandria
Ibn Abī al-Fatḥ al-Ṣūfī: Shams al-Dīn Abū �Abd Allāh Muḥammad ibn Abī al-Fatḥ al-Ṣūfī
Abī al-Fatḥ al-ṢūfīIbn Abī al-Shukr: Muḥyī al-Milla wa-’l-Dīn Yaḥyā Abū �Abdallāh
ibn Muḥammad ibn Abī al-Shukr al-Maghribī al-Andalusī [al-Qurṭubī]
Abī al-ShukrIbn al-A�lam: �Alī ibn al-Ḥusayn Abū al-Qāsim al-�Alawī al-Sharīf
al-ḤusaynīIbn Bājja: Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Yaḥyā ibn al-Ṣā’igh al-Tujībī
al-Andalusī al-SaraqusṭīAvempaceBājja
Ibn al-Bannā’: Abū al-�Abbās Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad ibn �Uthmān al-Azdī al-Marrākushī
al-Bannā’Ibn Bāṣo: Abū �Alī Al-Ḥusayn ibn Abī Ja�far Aḥmad ibn Yūsuf Ibn Bāṣo
BāṣoIbn Ezra: Abraham ibn �Ezra
EzraIbn al-Hā’im: Abū Muḥammad �Abd al-Ḥaqq al-Ghāfiqī al-Ishbīlī
al-Hā’imIbn al-Haytham: Abū �Alī al-Ḥasan ibn al-Ḥasan
Alhazenal-Haytham
Ibn �Irāq: Abū Naṣr Manṣūr ibn �Alī ibn �Irāq�Irāq
Ibn Isḥāq: Abū al-�Abbās ibn Isḥāq al-Tamīmī al-TūnisīIsḥāq
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xxx Table of Entries
Ibn al-Kammād: Abū Ja�far Aḥmad ibn Yūsuf ibn al-Kammādal-Kammād
Ibn Labbān, Kushyār: Kiyā Abū al-Ḥasan Kushyār ibn Labbān Bashahrī al-Jīlī (Gīlānī)
Labbān, KushyārIbn al-Majdī: Shihāb al-Dīn Abū al-�Abbās Aḥmad ibn Rajab ibn
Ṭaybughā al-Majdī al-Shāfi�īal-Majdī
Ibn Mu�ādh: Abū �Abd Allāh Muḥammad ibn Mu�ādh al-JayyānīMu�ādh
Ibn al-Raqqām: Abū �Abd Allāh Muḥammad ibn Ibrāhīm ibn �Alī ibn Aḥmad ibn Yūsuf al-Mursī al-Andalusī al-Tūnisī al-Awsī ibn al-Raqqām
al-RaqqāmIbn Rushd: Abū l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad
ibn Rushd al-ḤafīdAverroesRushd
Ibn al-Ṣaffār: Abū al-Qāsim Aḥmad ibn �Abd Allāh ibn �Umar al-Ghāfiqī ibn al-Ṣaffār al-Andalusī
al-ṢaffārIbn Sahl: Abū Sa�d al-�Alā’ ibn Sahl
SahlIbn al-Ṣalāḥ: Najm al-Dīn Abū al-Futūḥ Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad
ibn al-Sarī Ibn al-Ṣalāḥal-Ṣalāḥ
Ibn al-Samḥ: Abū al-Qāsim Aṣbagh ibn Muḥammad ibn al-Samḥ al-Gharnāṭī
al-SamḥIbn al-Shāṭir: �Alā’ al-Dīn �Alī ibn Ibrāhīm
al-ShāṭirIbn Sid: Isaac ibn Sid
SidIbn Sīnā: Abū �Alī al-Ḥusayn ibn �Abdallāh ibn Sīnā
AvicennaSīnā
Ibn Ṭufayl: Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn �Abd al-Malik ibn Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad ibn Ṭufayl al-Qaysī
AbubacerṬufayl
Ibn Yūnus: Abū al-Ḥasan �Alī ibn �Abd al-Raḥmān ibn Aḥmad ibn Yūnus al-Ṣadafī
YūnusIbrāhīm ibn Sinān ibn Thābit ibn QurraIhle, AbrahamIngalls, Albert GrahamInnes, Robert Thorburn AytonIno, TadatakaIrwin, John Henry BarrowsIsfizārī: Abū Ḥātim al-Muẓaffar ibn Ismā�īl al-IsfizārīIsḥāq Ibn Ḥunayn: Abū Ya�qūb Isḥāq ibn Ḥunayn ibn Isḥāq
al-�IbādīIsidore of Seville
Isidorus Hispalensis
Jābir ibn Aflaḥ: Abū Muḥammad Jābir ibn AflaḥJacchia, Luigi GiuseppeJackson, JohnJacob ben Makhir ibn Tibbon
Don Profeit TibbonProfatius
Jagannātha SamrāṭJaghmīnī: Sharaf al-Dīn Maḥmūd ibn Muḥammad ibn �Umar
al-Jaghmīnī al-KhwārizmīJai Singh IIJansky, Karl GutheJanssen, Pierre Jules CésarJarry-Desloges, RenéJavelle, StéphaneJawharī: al-�Abbās ibn Sa�īd al-JawharīJeans, James HopwoodJeaurat, Edme-SébastienJeffreys, HaroldJenkins, Louise FreelandJia KuiJohn of Gmunden
Krafft, JohannJohn of Holywood
Johannes de SacroboscoSacrobosco
John of LignèresJohannes de Lineriis
John of [Juan de] MessinaJohn of Muris [Murs]
Jean de MeursJehan de MursJohannes de Muris
John [Danko] of SaxonyJohn of ToledoJohnson, Manuel JohnJonckheere, RobertJordan, Ernst PascualJoy, Alfred HarrisonJurjānī: �Alī ibn Muḥammad ibn �Ali al-Ḥusaynī al-Jurjānī
(al-Sayyid al-Sharīf)Jūzjānī: Abū �Ubayd �Abd al-Wāḥid ibn Muḥammad
al-JūzjānīJyeșţhadeva
Kaiser, Frederik [Frederick, Friedrich]Kaluza, Theodor Franz EduardKamāl al-Dīn al-Turkmānī: Kamāl al-Dīn Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad
ibn �Uthmān ibn Ibrāhīm ibn Muṣṭafā al-Māridīnī al-Turkmānī al-Ḥanafī
KamalākaraKankaKant, ImmanuelKapteyn, Jacobus CorneliusKāshī: Ghiyāth (al-Milla wa-) al-Dīn Jamshīd ibn Mas�ūd ibn
Maḥmūd al-Kāshī [al-Kāshānī]Kauffman, Nicolaus
Mercator, NicolausKeckermann, BartholomewKeeler, James EdwardKeenan, Philip ChildsKeill, JohnKempf, Paul Friedrich FerdinandKepler, Johannes
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xxxiTable of Entries
Kerr, Frank JohnKeśavaKeyser, Pieter [Petrus] (Theodori) DirckszoonKhafrī: Shams al-Dīn Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad al-Khafrī
al-KāshīKhaikin, Semyon EmmanuilovichKhalīfazāde Ismā�īl: Khalīfazāde Çınarī Ismā�īl Efendi ibn MuṣṭafāKhalīlī: Shams al-Dīn Abū �Abdallāh Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad
al-KhalīlīKharaqī: Shams al-Dīn Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad
al-Kharaqī [al-Khiraqī]Khayyām: Ghiyāth al-Dīn Abū al-Fatḥ �Umar ibn Ibrāhīm
al-Khayyāmī al-NīshāpūrīOmar Khayyām
Khāzin: Abū Ja�far Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥusayn al-Khāzin al-Khurāsānī
Khāzinī: Abū al-Fatḥ �Abd al-Raḥmān al-Khāzinī (Abū Manṣūr �Abd al-Raḥmān, Abd al-Raḥmān Manṣūr)
Khujandī: Abū Maḥmūd Ḥāmid ibn al-Khiḍr al-KhujandīKhwārizmī: Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-KhwārizmīKidinnu [Kidin, Kidenas]Kienle, Hans GeorgKiepenheuer, Karl-OttoKiess, Carl ClarenceKimura, HisashiKindī: Abū Yūsuf Ya�qūb ibn Isḥāq al-KindīKing, William FrederickKirch, ChristfriedKirch, ChristineKirch, GottfriedKirch, Maria Margaretha WinkelmanKircher, AthanasiusKirchhoff, Gustav RobertKirkwood, DanielKlein, Hermann JosephKlein, Oskar BenjaminKlinkerfues, Ernst Friedrich WilhelmKlotz, Otto JuliusKlumpke Roberts, DorotheaKneller, Andreas
CellariusKnobel, Edward BallKnorre, Viktor CarlKobold, Hermann AlbertKöhler, Johann GottfriedKohlschütter, ArnoldKolhörster, Werner Heinrich Julius GustavKolmogorov, Andrei NikolaevichKonkoly Thege, Miklós [Nikolaus]Kopal, ZdenĕkKopff, AugustKordylewski, KazimierzKorff, Serge AlexanderKovalsky, Marian Albertovich
Voytekhovich, Marian AlbertovichKozyrev, Nikolai AlexandrovichKrebs, Nicholas
Nicholas CusanusNikolaus von Cusa
Nicholas of CusaKremer, Gerhard
Gerardus MercatorKreutz, Heinrich Carl FriedrichKrieger, Johann NepomukKron, Gerald EdwardKrüger, Karl Nicolaus AdalbertKūhī: Abū Sahl Wījan ibn Rustam [Wustam] al-Kūhī
[al-Qūhī]Kuiper, Gerard PeterKulik, Leonid AlexyevichKüstner, Karl Friedrich
La Caille [Lacaille], Nicolas-Louis deLacchini, Giovanni BattistaLacroute, PierreLagrange, Joseph Louis
Lagrangia, Giuseppe LodovicoLalande, Joseph-Jérôme
de la Lande, Joseph-JérômeLefrançois de la Lande, Joseph-Jérôme
LallaLallemand, AndréLambert, Johann Heinrich [Jean Henry]Lamont, John [Johann von]Lampland, Carl OttoLanczos, Cornelius
Löwy, KornelLane, Jonathan HomerLangley, Samuel PierpontLangren, Michael Florent van
LangrenusLansbergen, JacobLansbergen, PhilipLaplace, Pierre-Simon deLārī: Muṣliḥ al-Dīn Muḥammad ibn Ṣalāḥ ibn Jalāl al-Sàdī
al-ʔIbādī al-Anṣārī al-LārīLarmor, JosephLassell, WilliamLau, Hans EmilLeadbetter, CharlesLeavitt, Henrietta SwanLebedev, Petr NikolaevichLeclerc, Georges-Louis
Comte de BuffonLedoux, PaulLe Doulcet, Philippe Gustave
Comte de PontécoulantLefrançois, Michel
Lefrançois de Lalande, MichelLegendre, Adrien-MarieLeibniz, Gottfried WilhelmLemaître, Georges Henri-Joseph-EdouardLeovitius, CyprianusLepaute, Nicole-Reine
Étable de la Brière, Nicole-ReineLescarbault, Edmond ModesteLeucippus of MiletusLeuschner, Armin Otto
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Le Verrier, Urbain-Jean-JosephLexell, Anders JohanLi ChunfengLiais, Emmanuel-BenjaminLiddel, DuncanLin, Chia ChiaoLindblad, BertilLindemann, Adolf FriedrichLindsay, Eric MervynLipsky, Yuri NaumovichLittrow [Littroff], Johann Joseph (Edler) vonLittrow, Karl Ludwig vonLiu Zhuo [Ch’o]Lobachevsky, Nikolai IvanovichLocke, JohnLockyer, Joseph NormanLodge, Oliver JosephLohrmann, Wilhelm GotthelfLohse, Wilhelm Oswald
Lomonosov, Mikhail VasilievichLoomis, EliasLorentz, Hendrik AntoonLorenzoni, GiuseppeLovell, Alfred Charles BernardLowell, PercivalLower, WilliamLöwy, Maurice
Löwey, MoritzLoys de Chéseaux, Jean-PhilippeLubieniecki Stanislaw
Lubienitzley StanislasLucretius (Carus), TitusLudendorff, Friedrich Wilhelm HansLundmark, Knut EmilLuther, Karl Theodor RobertLuyten, Willem JacobLyot, BernardLyttleton, Raymond Arthur
If a name within the text appears in bold, there exists an entry on that astronomer elsewhere in the encyclopedia.
xxxii Table of Entries
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Table of Entries
Maclaurin, ColinCailean MacLabhruinn
Maclear, ThomasMacrobius, Ambrosius (Theodosius)Mädler, Johann Heinrich vonMagini, Giovanni AntonioMahendra SāriMaimonides: Abā �Imrīn Māsī [Moses] ibn �Ubayd Allīh
[Maymān] al-QurāubūMairan, Jean-Jacques
Dortous de Mairan, Jean-JacquesMajrūāū: Abā al-Qīsim Maslama ibn A ī mad al-ḥ īsib al-Fara Ḥū
al-MajrūāūMakarandaMakemson, Maud WorcesterMaksutov, Dmitry DmitrievichMalapert, CharlesMalebranche, NicholasMalmquist, Karl GunnarMa’mān: Abā al- �Abbīs �Abdallīh ibn Hīrān al-RashūdManfredi, EustachioManilius [Manlius], Marcus
Mallius, MarcusMaraldi, Giacomo Filippo
Maraldi IMaraldi, Giovanni Domenico [Jean-Dominique]
Maraldi IIMarkarian, Beniamin EgishevichMarkgraf, GeorgMarkov, Andrei AndreevichMarkowitz, WilliamMarrīkushū: Sharaf al-Dūn Abā �Alū al-ḥ asan ibn �Alū ibn �Umar
al-MarrīkushūMarwarrādhū: Khīlid ibn �Abd al-Malik al-MarwarrādhūMīshī’allīh ibn Atharū (Sīriya)
MessahalaMaskelyne, NevilMason, CharlesMästlin [Möstlin], Michael
MoestlinusMöschlin, Michael
Mathurīnītha ĀarmanMaudith, JohnMaunder, Annie Scott Dill RussellMaunder, Edward WalterMaupertuis, Pierre-Louis Moreau deMaurolico, Francesco
Maury, Antonia Caetana De Paiva PereiraMaury, Matthew FontaineMaxwell, James ClerkMayall, Margaret WaltonMayall, Nicholas UlrichMayer, ChristianMayer, Johann TobiasMayer, Julius RobertMayr, Simon
MariusMcClean, FrankMcCrea, William HunterMcIntosh, Ronald AlexanderMcKellar, AndrewMcLaughlin, Dean BenjaminMcMath, Robert RaynoldsMcVittie, George CunliffeMéchain, Pierre-François-AndréMee, Arthur Butler PhillipsMegenberg, Konrad [Conrad] von
Chunradus de Monte PuellarumMellish, John EdwardMelotte, Philibert JacquesMenaechmusMenelaus of AlexandriaMenzel, Donald HowardMerrill, Paul WillardMersenne, MarinMessier, CharlesMetcalf, Joel HastingsMetochites [Metoxites], Theodore [Theodoros, Theoleptos]MetonMetrodorus of ChiosMichell, JohnMichelson, Albert AbrahamMiddlehurst, Barbara MaryMikhailov, Aleksandr AleksandrovichMilankovitch [MilankoviᾹ], MilutinMiller, John AnthonyMillikan, Robert AndrewsMillman, Peter MackenzieMilne, Edward ArthurMilton, JohnMineur, Henri PaulMinkowski, HermannMinkowski, Rudolph Leo BernhardMinnaert, Marcel Gilles Jozef
Names preceded by an article or preposition are alphabetized by the next word in the name.There are two exceptions: One is the Dutch “Van,” “Van de,” “Van den,” and “Van der.” Another is “Warren De La Rue” (alphabetized under D). (Arabic names are alphabetized under the shortened version of the name.)
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xxiv Table of Entries
Mūram ōelebū: Maī mād ibn Quāb al-Dūn Muī ammad ibn Muī ammad ibn Māsī Qī Ḥūzīde
Mitchel, Ormsby MacKnightMitchell, MariaMizzū: Zayn al-Dūn [Shams al-Dūn] Abā �Abd Allīh Mu ī ammad
ibn Aī mad ibn �Abd al-Raī ūm al-Mizzū al-ḥ anafūMohler, Orren CuthbertMolesworth, Percy BraybrookeMoll, GerardMollweide, Karl BrandanMolyneux, SamuelMolyneux, WilliamMonck, William Henry StanleyMonnier, Pierre-Charles le
Lemonnier, Pierre-CharlesMonnig, Oscar EdwardMontanari, GeminianoMoore, Joseph HainesMoore-Sitterly, Charlotte EmmaMorgan, Augustus deMorgan, Herbert RolloMorgan, William WilsonMorin, Jean-BaptisteMorley, Edward WilliamsMorrison, PhilipMouchez, Ernest Amédée BarthélémyMoulton, Forest RayMouton, GabrielMrkos, AntonínMukai, GenshoMuler, Nicolaus
MuleriusMüller, Edith AliceMüller, Johann
RegiomontanusMüller, KarlMüller, Karl Hermann GustavMuñjīla
MañjulaMuñoz, Jerónimo
Naburianu [Naburianus, Nabû-ri-man-nu]Najm al-Dūn al-Miṣrū: Najm al-Dūn Abā �Abd Allīh Mu ī ammad
ibn Muī ammad ibn Ibrīhūm al-MiṣrūNapier, JohnNasawū: Abā al-ḥ asan �Alū ibn Aī mad al-NasawūNasmyth, James HallNasāālus: Muī ammad ibn �Abd Allīh
BasāālusNayrūzū: Abā al-�Abbīs al-Fa Ḥl ibn ḥ ītim al-NayrūzūNernst, Walther HermannNeugebauer, Otto E.Neumann, Carl GottfriedNevill [Neville], Edmund Neison
Neison, EdmundNewcomb, SimonNewton, Hubert Anson
Newton, IsaacNicholas of Lynn [Lynne]Nicholson, Seth BarnesNiesten, Jean Louis NicholasNietzsche, Friedrich WilhelmNightingale, Peter
Petrus (Philomena) de DaciaPetrus Dacus [Danus]
Nūlakaḍāha SomayījiNininger, Harvey HarlowNūsībārū: al-ḥ asan ibn Muī ammad ibn al-ḥ usayn
NiṢīm al-Dūn al-A�raj al-NūsībārūNishikawa, Joken
TadahideNordmann, CharlesNorton, William AugustusNorwood, RichardNovara, Domenico Maria da
Ploti FerrariensisNumerov [Noumeroff], Boris Vasil’evichNunes, PedroNušl, František
O’Connell, Daniel Joseph KellyOdierna [Hodierna], Giovanbatista [Giovan Battista, Giovanni
Battista]Oenopides of ChiosOffusius, JofrancusÖhman, K. YngveOlbers, Heinrich Wilhelm MatthiasOlcott, William TylerOlivier, Charles PollardOlmsted, DenisonOlym piodorus the Younger [the Platonist, the Neo-Platonist,
the Great]Oort, Jan HendrikÖpik, Ernst JuliusOppenheimer, J. RobertOppolzer, Egon Ritter vonOppolzer, Theodor Ritter vonOresme, NicoleOriani, BarnabaOsiander, AndreasOuthier, Réginald [Réginaud]Ovid
Ovidius Naso, PubliusPage, Thornton L.Palisa, JohannPalitzsch, JohannPalmer, MargarettaPannekoek, AntoniePapadopoulos, ChristosPappus of AlexandriaParamečvara of Vīāaččeri [Paramečvara I]Parenago, Pavel PetrovichParkhurst, Henry M.Parmenides of Elea
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xxvTable of Entries
Parsons, LaurenceFourth Earl of Rosse
Parsons, WilliamThird Earl of Rosse
Pawsey, Joseph LadePayne-Gaposchkin [Payne], Cecilia Helena
Gaposchkin, Cecilia HelenaPayne, William WallacePearce, Joseph AlgernonPearson, WilliamPeary, Robert EdwinPease, Francis GladhelmPeek, Bertrand MeighPeirce, BenjaminPeiresc, Nicolas-Claude Fabri dePèlerin de Prusse
Preussen, Pilgrim Zeleschicz vonPeregrinus de Prussia
Peltier, Leslie CopusPeregrinus de Maricourt, PetrusPerepelkin, Yevgenij YakovlevichPéridier, Julien MariePerrin, Jean-BaptistePerrine, Charles DillonPerrotin, Henri-Joseph-AnastasePeters, Christian August FriedrichPeters, Christian Heinrich FriedrichPetit, PierrePettit, EdisonPeucer, CasparPeurbach [Peuerbach, Purbach], Georg vonPfund, August HermannPhillip of OpusPhillips, Theodore Evelyn ReecePhilolaus of CrotonPhiloponus, John
John the GrammarianJohn of Alexandria
Piazzi, GiuseppePicard, JeanPiccolomini, AlessandroPickering, Edward CharlesPickering, William HenryPigott, EdwardPingré, Alexandre-GuyPićmić, Paris MariePlana, Giovanni Antonio AmedeoPlancius, Petrus
Platevoet, PetrusPlanman, AndersPlaskett, Harry HemleyPlaskett, John StanleyPlatoPlaut, LukasPliny the Elder
Plinius SecundusPlummer, Henry Crozier KeatingPlutarch
Poczobut Marcin [Martin Poczobutt]Poe, Edgar AllanPogson, Norman RobertPoincaré, Jules-HenriPoisson, Siméon-DenisPond, JohnPons, Jean-LouisPopper, Daniel MagnesPoretsky, Platon SergeevichPorter, John GuyPorter, Russell WilliamsPosidoniusPouillet, Claude-Servais-Mathias-Marie-RolandPound, JamesPoynting, John HenryPrager, RichardPrentice, John Philip ManningPritchard, CharlesPritchett, Carr WallerProclusProctor, MaryProctor, Richard AnthonyProsperin, ErikPrzybylski, AntoniPtolemy
Claudius PtolemaiusPuiseux, Pierre-HenriPurcell, Edward MillsPythagoras
Qabūṣū: Abā al-Ṭaqr �Abd al-�Azūz ibn �Uthmīn ibn �Alū al-QabūṣūAlcabitius
Qī Ḥūzīde al-Rāmū: Ṭalī ī al-Dūn Māsī ibn Muī ammad ibn Maī mād al-Rāmū
Qīsim ibn Mu āarrif al-Qaāāīn: Abā Muī ammad Qīsim ibn Muāarrif ibn �Abd al-Raī mīn al-Qaāāīn al- ṭ ulayāulū al-Qurāubū al- Andalusū
Qaāāīn-i al-Marwazū: �Ayn al-Zamīn Abā �Alū ḥ asan ibn �Alū Qaāāīn [Qa āāīn] al-Marwazū
Qian LezhiQusāī ibn Lāqī al-Ba �labakkū
Costa ben LucaQuetelet, Lambert Adolphe JacquesQunawū: Muī ammad ibn al-Kītib Sūnīn al-QunawūQāshjū: Abā al-Qīsim �Alī’ al-Dūn �Alū ibn Muī ammadQushᾹi-zīde
Rīghavīnanda ĀarmanRamus, Peter [Petrus]
Ramée, Pierre de laRan-ganītha IRan-ganītha IIRankine, William John MacquornRanyard, Arthur CowperRauchfuss, Konrad
Cunradus DasypodiusRayet, Georges-Antoine-PonsRaymond of Marseilles
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xxvi Table of Entries
Reber, GroteRecorde, RobertRede, WilliamRedman, Roderick OliverRegener, Erich Rudolph AlexanderRégis, Pierre-SylvainRegius, Hendrick
Henricus RegiusRoy, Hendrick de
Reinhold, ErasmusReinmuth, Karl WilhelmRenieri, VincenzioRespighi, LorenzoRheita, Antonius Maria Schyrleus de Schyrle [Schierl, Schürle]
Johann BurchardRheticus
Lauchen, Georg Joachim vonRho, GiacomoRicci, MatteoRiccioli, Giovanni BattistaRiccò, AnnibaleRichard of WallingfordRichaud, JeanRicher, JeanRiḤwīn al-Falakū: RiḤwīn Efendi ibn �Abdallīh
al-Razzīz al-FalakūRistenpart, Frederich WilhelmRitchey, George WillisRittenhouse, DavidRitter, Georg August DietrichRitter, Johann WilhelmRoach, Franklin EvansRoberts, Alexander WilliamRoberts, IsaacRobertson, Howard PercyRobinson, Thomas RomneyRoche, Édouard AlbertRoeslin, HelisaeusRoger of Hereford
Rogerus InfansRogerus Puer
Rohault, JacquesRömer [Roemer], Ole [Olaus]Rooke, LawrenceRosenberg, HansRosenberger, OttoRoss, Frank ElmoreRossi, Bruno BenedettoRossiter, Richard AlfredRothmann, ChristophRowland, Henry AugustusRudīnū: Abā �Abdallīh Mu ī ammad ibn Sulaymīn (Mu ī ammad)
al- Fīsū ibn ṭ īhir al-Rudīnū al-Sāsū al-Mīlikū [al- Maghribū]
Rümker, Christian Karl [Carl] LudwigRumovsky, Stepan YakovlevichRunge, Carl [Carle] David TolmeRussell, Henry ChamberlainRussell, Henry Norris
Russell, JohnRutherford, ErnestRutherfurd, Lewis MorrisRydberg, Johannes [Janee] Robert
Sabine, EdwardṬadr al-Sharū�a al-Thīnū: �Ubaydallīh ibn Mas �ād al- Maī bābū
al-Bukhīrū al-ḥ anafūSafford, Truman HenrySafronov, Viktor SergeyevichṬīghīnū: Abā ḥ īmid A ī mad ibn Muī ammad al-Ṭīghīnū
[al-Ṭaghīnū] al-AsāurlībūSaha, Meghnad N.Ṭī �id al-Andalusū: Abā al-Qīsim Ṭī �id ibn abū al-Walūd Aī mad
ibn �Abd al-Raī mīn ibn Mu ī ammad ibn Ṭī �id al-Taghlibū al-Qurāubū
St. John, Charles EdwardSalih ZekiSamarqandū: Shams al-Dūn Muī ammad ibn Ashraf al-ḥ usaynū
al-SamarqandūSamaw’al: Abā Naṣr Samaw’al ibn Yaī yī ibn �Abbīs al-Maghribū
al-AndalusūSampson, Ralph AllenSanad ibn �Alū: Abā al-ṭ ayyib Sanad ibn �Alū al-YahādūSanford, Roscoe FrankSantini, Giovanni-Sante-GasperoĀatīnandaSaunder, Samuel ArthurSaunders, Frederick AlbertSavary, FelixSavile, HenrySawyer Hogg, Helen Battles
Hogg, Helen BattlesSchaeberle [Schäberle] John [Johann] MartinSchalén, Carl Adam WilhelmSchall von Bell, Johann Adam
Tang-Jo-WangScheiner, ChristophScheiner, JuliusScheuchzer, Johann JakobSchiaparelli, Giovanni VirginioSchickard, WilhelmSchiller, JuliusSchjellerup, Hans Karl Frederik ChristianSchlesinger, FrankSchmidt, Bernhard VoldemarSchmidt, Johann Friedrich JuliusSchmidt, Otto IulevichSchöner, JohannesSchönfeld, EduardSchreck, Johann
TerrentiusTerrenz, JeanSchrödinger, Erwin
Schröter, Johann HieronymusSchüler, WolfgangSchumacher, Heinrich ChristianSchuster, ArthurSchwabe, Samuel Heinrich
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xxviiTable of Entries
Schwarzschild, KarlSchwarzschild, MartinSchwassmann, Friedrich Karl ArnoldScot, MichaelScottus [Scotus] Eriugena, Johannes [John]Seares, Frederick HanleySecchi, (Pietro) AngeloSee, Thomas Jefferson JacksonSeeliger, Hugo vonSeleukus of SeleukeiaSenecaServiss, Garrett PutnamSeverin, Christian
LongomontanusSeverus Sebokht [Sebokt, Sebukht, Seboht]Seyfert, Carl KeenanShain [Shayn, Shajn], Grigory AbramovichShakerley, JeremyShams al-Dūn al-BukhīrūShane, Charles DonaldShapley, HarlowShapley, Martha
Betz, MarthaSharaf al-Dūn al-ṭ āsūSharonov, Vsevolod VasilievichSharp, AbrahamShi ShenShibukawa, HarumiShūrīzū: Quāb al-Dūn Maī mād ibn Mas �ād Muṣliī al-ShūrīzūShirwīnū: Fatī allīh ibn Abā Yazūd ibn �Abd al-�Azūz ibn Ibrīhūm
al-Shībarīnū al-Shirwīnū al-ShamīhūShizuki, TadaoShklovsky [Shklovskii, Shklovskij], Iosif SamuilovichSibā al-Mīridūnū: Muī ammad ibn Muī ammad ibn Aī mad Abā
�Abd Allīh Badr [Shams] al-Dūn al-Miṣrū al- Dimashqū
Siguenza y Góngora, Carlos (de)Sijzū: Abā Sa �ūd Aī mad ibn Muī ammad ibn �Abd al-Jalūl al-SijzūSilberstein, LudwikSilvester, Bernard
Bernardus SilvestrisSima Qian
Ssu-Ma Ch’ienSimplicius of CiliciaSitter, Willem deSizzi, FrancescoSkjellerup, John FrancisSlipher, Earl CarlSlipher, Vesto MelvinSlocum, FrederickSmart, William MarshallSmiley, Charles HughSmith, SinclairSmyth, Charles PiazziSmyth, William HenrySnel [Snell], Willebrord
SnelliusSnyder, HartlandSoldner, Johann Georg
Somerville, Mary Fairfax GriegSorby, Henry CliftonSosigenes of AlexandriaSouth, JamesSpencer Jones, HaroldSphujidhvajaSpitz, Armand NeustadterSpitzer, Lyman, Jr.Spörer, Friedrich Wilhelm GustavĀrūpatiStabius, JohannStark, JohannesSteavenson, William HerbertStebbins, JoelStephan, Jean-Marie-ÉdouardStern, OttoSternberg [Shternberg], Pavel KarlovichStetson, Harlan TrueStevin, SimonStewart, BalfourStewart, John QuincyStewart, MatthewStöffler, Johannes
StoeflerusStokes, George GabrielStokley, JamesStone, Edward JamesStone, OrmondStoney, George JohnstoneStorer, ArthurStörmer, Fredrik Carl MülertzStoyko, Nicolas
Stoiko-Radilenko, NicolasStrand, Kaj Aage GunnarStratton, Frederick John MarrianStreete, ThomasStrömberg, GustavStromgren, Bengt Georg DanielStrömgren, Svante ElisStroobant, Paul-HenriStruve, Friedrich Georg Wilhelm
Struve, Vasily YakovlevichStruve, Georg Otto HermannStruve, Gustav Wilhelm Ludwig
Struve, Ludwig OttovichStruve, Karl Hermann
Struve, Hermann OttovichStruve, OttoStruve, Otto Wilhelm
Struve, Otton VasilievichStukeley, WilliamSu Song
Su SungSuárez, BuenaventuraSuess, Hans EduardṬāfū: Abā al-ḥ usayn �Abd al-Raī mīn ibn �Umar al-ṬāfūSulaymīn ibn �Iṣma: Abā Dīwād Sulaymīn ibn �Iṣma
al-SamarqandūSundman, Karl Frithiof
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xxviii Table of Entries
Suyāāū: Abā al-FaḤl �Abd al-Raī mīn Jalīl al-Dūn al-Suyā āūSwan, WilliamSwedenborg, EmanuelSwift, LewisSwings, Polydore [Pol] Ferdinand FelixSwope, Henrietta HillSynesius of Cyrene
ṭ aba rū: Abā Ja�far Muī ammad ibn Ayyāb al-ḥ īsib al- ṭ abarū
Tacchini, PietroTakahashi, YoshitokiTaqū al-Dūn Abā Bakr Muī ammad ibn Zayn al-Dūn Ma�rāf
al-Dimashqū al-ḥ anafūTarde, Jean
TardeusTaylor, Geoffrey IngramTebbutt, JohnTeller, Edward [Ede]Tempel, Ernst Wilhelm LeberechtTennant, James FrancisTerby, François Joseph CharlesTezkireci Köse IbrīhūmThībit ibn QurraThackeray, Andrew DavidThales of MiletusTheodosius of BithyniaTheon of AlexandriaTheon of SmyrnaTheophrastus
TyrtamusThiele, Thorvald NicolaiThollon, LouisThom, AlexanderThome, John [Juan] MaconThomson, George PagetThomson, William
Baron Kelvin of LargsLord Kelvin
Tikhov, Gavril AdrianovichTimocharisTisserand, François-FélixTitius [Tietz], Johann DanielTodd, CharlesTodd, David PeckTolman, Richard ChaceTombaugh, Clyde WilliamTorricelli, EvangelistaToscanelli dal Pozzo, PaoloTousey, RichardTriesnecker, Franz [Francis] de Paula vonTrouvelot, Étienne-LêopoldTrumpler, Robert JuliusTserasky [Tzeraskii], Vitol’d [Witold] Karlovich
Ceraski, Vitol’d [Witold] KarlovichTurner, Herbert Hall
ṭ āsū: Abā Ja �far Muī ammad ibn Muī ammad ibn al-ḥ asan Naṣūr al-Dūn al-ṭ āsū
Tuttle, Horace Parnell
�Ubaydū: Jalīl al-Dūn FaḤl Allīh al- �UbaydūUlugh Beg: Muī ammad ṭ araghīy ibn Shīhrukh ibn Tūmār
GārgīnUmawū: Abā �Alū al-ḥ asan ibn �Alū ibn Khalaf al-Umawū
al-Khatūb al-Umawū al-QurāubūUnsöld, Albrecht�UrḤū: Mu’ayyad (al-Milla wa-) al-Dūn (Mu’ayyad ibn Barūk
[Burayk]) al-’UrḤū (al-�śmirū al-Dimashqū)Urey, Harold Clayton�Uāīrid: �Uāīrid ibn Mu ī ammad al-ḥ īsib
Väisälä, YrjöVan Albada, Gale BrunoVan Allen, James AlfredVan Biesbroeck, Georges-AchilleVan de Kamp, Peter [Piet]Van de Sande Bakhuyzen [Bakhuysen], Hendrik Gerard
[Hendricus Gerardus]Van den Bos, Willem HendrikVan den Hove, Maarten
Martinus Hortensius [Ortensius]Van Maanen, AdriaanVan Rhijn, Pieter JohannesVarīhamihiraVaucouleurs, Gérard Henri deVerbiest, FerdinandVery, Frank WashingtonVespucci, AmerigoVico, Francesco deVinci, Leonardo daVirdung, JohannVirgil [Vergil]
Vergilius Maro, PubliusVitruvius, Marcus
Pollio, MarcusVogel, Hermann CarlVögelin, Johannes
VogelinusVogt, HeinrichVolkoff, George MichaelVorontsov-Veliaminov [-Velyaminov], Boris Aleksandrovich
Wībkanawū: Shams al-Munajjim [Shams al-Dūn] Muī ammad ibn �Alū Khwīja al-Wībkanawū [Wībaknawū]
Wachmann, Arno ArthurWalcher of MalvernWaldmeier, MaxWales, WilliamWalker, Arthur GeoffreyWalker, Sears CookWallace, Alfred Russel
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xxixTable of Entries
Wallis, JohnWalther, Bernard [Bernhard]Wang XunWard, Isaac W.Ward, SethWargentin, Pehr WilhelmWassenius [Vassenius], BirgerWaterston, John JamesWatson, James CraigWatts, Chester BurleighWebb, Thomas WilliamWeigel, ErhardWeinek, László [Ladislaus]Weiss, EdmundWeizsäcker, Carl Friedrich vonWendelen, Govaart [Gottfried, Godefried]
Godefridus WendelinusWerner, JohannesWesselink, Adriaan JanWeyl, (Claus Hugo) HermannWharten, GeorgeWheeler, John ArchibaldWhewell, WilliamWhipple, Fred LawrenceWhiston, WilliamWhitehead, Alfred NorthWhitford, Albert EdwardWhiting, Sarah FrancesWhitrow, Gerald JamesWid manstätten, Aloys [Alois]
Joseph Franz Xaver vonWildt, RupertWilhelm IV
Landgrave of Hessen-KasselWilkins, Hugh PercivalWilkins, JohnWilliam of [Guillaume de] Conches
Guilelmus de ConchisWilliam of MoerbekeWilliam of [Guillaume de] Saint-CloudWilliams, Arthur StanleyWilliams, Evan GwynWilsing, Johannes Moritz DanielWilson, Albert GeorgeWilson, AlexanderWilson, Herbert CouperWilson, Latimer JamesWilson, Olin Chaddock, Jr.Wilson, Ralph ElmerWing, VincentWinlock, JosephWinnecke, Friedrich August TheodorWinthrop, JohnWirtanen, Carl AlvarWirtz, Carl WilhelmWitt, Carl Gustav
Wittich, PaulWolf, Charles-Joseph-ÉtienneWolf, Johann RudolfWolf, Maximilian Franz Joseph CorneliusWollaston, William HydeWoltjer, Jan, Jr.Wood, Frank BradshawWood, Robert WilliamsWoolley, Richard Van der RietWren, ChristopherWright, ChaunceyWright, ThomasWright, William HammondWrottesley, JohnWurm, KarlWyse, Arthur Bambridge
Xenophanes of ColophonXimenes, Leonardo
Yaī yī ib n Abū Manṣār: Abā �Alū Yaī yī ibn Abū Manṣār al- Munajjim
Ya�qāb ibn ṭ īriqYativḡṣabhaYavanečvaraYixing
I-HsingSeng YixingYixing Chanshi
Young, Anne SewellYoung, Charles Augustus
Zach, János Ferenc [Franz Xaver] vonZacut: Abraham ben Samuel ZacutZanotti, EustachioZanstra, Herman Zarqīlū: Abā Isī īq Ibrīhūm ibn Yaī yà al-Naqqīsh al-Tujūbū
al-ZarqīlūAzarquiel
Zeeman, PieterZeipel, Edvard Hugo vonZel’dovich, Yakov BorisovichZhamaluding: Jamīl al-Dūn Muī ammad ibn ṭ īhir ibn
Muī ammad al-Zaydū al-BukhīrūJamīl al-Dūn
Zhang HengChang Heng
Zhang SixunZinner, ErnstZöllner, Johann Karl FriedrichZu Chongzhi
Tsu Ch’ung-chihZucchi, NicolloZupi, Giovan BattistaZwicky, Fritz
If a name within the text appears in bold, there exists an entry on that astronomer elsewhere in the encyclopedia.
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Introduction
History is the essence of innumerable biographies.Thomas Carlyle, Essays, “On History”
Astronomy has a long and rich tradition, and as the record shows, the history of that tradition is tied closely to collective biography.1 The present volumes represent a modern attempt to provide a comprehensive biographical encyclopedia of astronomers. The purpose of these volumes is twofold. First, as ready reference, they are designed to provide easy access to biographical information in the history of astron-omy. Cutting across space and time, biographical entries are international in scope and cover the period from classical Antiquity to the late 20th century. Second, drawing on a variety of specialized scholars, these volumes aim to serve as an “access point” for continuing research. While individual entries “stand alone” as ready reference, taken collectively, they offer a map of the complex communities that gave sci-ence shape.2 The following introduction has two purposes: first, to sketch the origins of collective biography and its place in the history of astronomy; second, to illustrate the design and use of collective biographies as reference and research tools.
Biography And History
There is properly no history, only biography.Ralph Waldo Emerson, Essays, “History”
History—here I mean historical writing—traces its origins to classical Antiquity, to the celebration of heroes and the lives of great men. Although lives were written before Plutarch’s aptly titled classic, the modern sense of biography—a fair-minded history of a particular life—took mature form only in the 19th century.3 The history of writing lives challenges the boundaries that currently separate history, biography, literature, rhetoric, and political commentary. While the roots of modern biography can be traced to the Renaissance (includ-ing early examples of science biography), sharp distinctions between “history and biography” are difficult to sustain, not only because the categories continue to overlap but because both share a common ancestor—what we now call collective biography.4 As background to the present volumes, the following historiographic essay sketches these changing relations.5
The origins of biography (literally, life writing) are found in classical Antiquity as part of a long tradition dedicated to the celebration of heroes.6 For two millennia, what we now know as history was often viewed as philosophy teaching by example. A brief glance at early writers suggests that biography and collective biography share a complex evolution. While Damascius (sixth century) was the first writer to use the Latin term biographia, John Dryden was the first to use biography in print (1683), this in reference to Plutarch’s Lives. Words are important but much more was at work. Viewed over time, historical writing included what is now known as history, biography, and collective bio-graphy, as well as elements from other branches of the humanities and social sciences.
Biography has served many masters. Between Antiquity and the Renaissance, its main role was to tell the lives of statesmen, philoso-phers, and saints. As a display of literary and rhetorical skill, its principal aim was to instruct and inspire. Among ancient Greek and Latin authors, the biographical art is evident in the Lives of Critias, the Memorabilia of Xenophon, the Lives of the Philosophers by Diogenes
1 I wish to thank the BEA Editorial Board for the invitation to write the Introduction. While I have contributed several articles in these volumes, I have had no role in designing or editing the present work.2 Collective biography invites the reader to explore the interplay of individuals, ideas, and groups. One scholar went further: “In group biography, one becomes d