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TEST NO: 8 - KEY Date: 02.03.2019
Max. Marks: 250 Max. Time 3 Hours
ANTHROPOLOGY- ALL INDIA TEST SERIES – TEST- 8
1.a. cyborg anthropology
Cyborg anthropology is a discipline that studies the interaction between humanity and technology
from an anthropological perspective. The discipline is relatively new, but offers novel insights on new
technological advances and their effect on culture and society.
described cyborg anthropology as the study of how humans define humanness in relationship to
machines, as well as the study of science and technology as activities that can shape and be shaped by
culture. This includes studying the ways that all people, including those who are not scientific experts,
talk about and conceptualize technology
Cyborg anthropology uses traditional methods of anthropological research like ethnography and
participant observation, accompanied by statistics, historical research, and interviews. By nature it is a
multidisciplinary study; cyborg anthropology can include aspects of Science and Technology Studies,
cybernetics, feminist theory, and more. It primarily focuses on how people use discourse about
science and technology in order to make these meaningful in their lives
Key concepts and research
1. Actor–network theory
2. Artificial intelligence
3. Posthumanism
Imp Scholars
1. Amber Case
2. Sherry Turkle
3. Sharon Traweek
4. Lucien Castaing-Taylor
5. Allucquere Rosanne Stone
1.b Genetic drift
Genetic drift is change in allele frequencies in a population from generation to generation that occurs
due to chance events. To be more exact, genetic drift is change due to "sampling error" in selecting
the alleles for the next generation from the gene pool of the current generation. Although genetic drift
happens in populations of all sizes, its effects tend to be stronger in small populations.
Key points
• Genetic drift is a mechanism of evolution in which allele frequencies of a population change
over generations due to chance (sampling error).
• Genetic drift occurs in all populations of non-infinite size, but its effects are strongest in small
populations.
• Genetic drift may result in the loss of some alleles (including beneficial ones) and the fixation, or
rise to 100 percent frequency, of other alleles.
Genetic drift can have major effects when a population is sharply reduced in size by a natural disaster
(bottleneck effect) or when a small group splits off from the main population to found a colony
(founder effect).
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1C Foster Child Method
• Define FCM – method to analyse relative influence of heredity and environment on
development of a trait
• Steps –
1. Selection
2. Placing
3. Testing
• Studies-
1 Chicago studies - Environmental dominance
2. Minnesota studies – heredity dominance
• Drawbacks - bias in selection, sample size issues,
• Conclusion - Complementary to twin studies, FCM is an important method to study nature
nurture aspects
c. Foster child method
• Define FCM – method to analyse relative influence of heredity and environment on
development of a trait
• Steps –
1. Selection
2. Placing
3. Testing
• Studies-
1 Chicago studies - Environmental dominance
2. Minnesota studies – heredity dominance
• Drawbacks - bias in selection, sample size issues,
Conclusion - Complementary to twin studies, FCM is an important method to study nature nurture
aspects
1d Mendelian Population
Population genetics is the systematic elucidation of essential biological phenomena, such as
adaptation and speciation—with adaptation here meaning enhanced reproductive success of a given
anatomical, physiological, or behavioral feature evident by increased allelic frequency over successive
generations and speciation meaning the appearance of qualitatively novel species of organism. A key
premise of population genetics is that inheritance of both quantitative and qualitative traits are based
on similar natural laws. Population genetics is the main technique derived from the so-called modern
evolutionary synthesis of the early 20th century, which melded neo-Darwinism with the rediscovery
of Mendel’s elegant laws of genetics.
Mendelian genetics is a neo-Darwinian evolutionary science made more complete and rigorous.
Mendel’s work indicated that more abrupt, large-scale differences were the major mechanism by
which evolution progressed. Fisher’s paper The Correlation Between Relatives on the Supposition of
Mendelian Inheritance invoked a continuous variation model that could derive from diverse discrete
loci.
Mendelian and Darwinian perspectives on evolution but also placed the synthesis within a robust
mathematical framework
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e. Karyotype analysis
A Karyotype is a photomicrograph of the chromosomal complement of an individual
•The chromosomes are arranged according to size, and numbered, with the first pair being
the largest chromosomes and the twenty second pair being the smallest in humans, except for the Y
(male-determining) chromosome
KARYOTYPING
Chromosomes are best observed in metaphase of mitotic cell division.
Karyotype systematically studies individual’s single chromosome. Single cell is referred in order to
avoid duplication.
Karyotypes are prepared by observing photographs using microscopes or by manual drawing by
observing in the microscope.
Karyotype provides information of an individual, a species or a genus.
Ex. Helpful in identifying the species for human 46 chromosomes. Again each individual has unique
arrangement.
PROCEDURE FOR KARYOTYPING: Collection of blood→planting for incubation add
colchicine→WBCs separated with centrifuge→ treated with hypotonic solution →acetic acid
fixation→ staining→ observed in microscope.
USES:
1. Knowing chromosomal abnormalities.
2. Genetic counseling. Etc.
2. a. Structural chromosomal aberrations. 15
When the chromosome's structure is altered, this can take several forms:
• Deletions: A portion of the chromosome is missing or deleted. Known disorders in humans
include Wolf-Hirschhorn syndrome, which is caused by partial deletion of the short arm of
chromosome 4; and Jacobsen syndrome, also called the terminal 11q deletion disorder.
• Duplications: A portion of the chromosome is duplicated, resulting in extra genetic material.
Known human disorders include Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 1A, which may be caused by
duplication of the gene encoding peripheral myelin protein 22 (PMP22) on chromosome 17.
• Translocations: A portion of one chromosome is transferred to another chromosome. There are
two main types of translocations:
o Reciprocal translocation: Segments from two different chromosomes have been exchanged.
o Robertsonian translocation: An entire chromosome has attached to another at the centromere -
in humans these only occur with chromosomes 13, 14, 15, 21, and 22.
• Inversions: A portion of the chromosome has broken off, turned upside down, and reattached,
therefore the genetic material is inverted.
• Insertions: A portion of one chromosome has been deleted from its normal place and inserted
into another chromosome.
• Rings: A portion of a chromosome has broken off and formed a circle or ring. This can happen
with or without loss of genetic material.
• Isochromosome: Formed by the mirror image copy of a chromosome segment including the
centromere.
Chromosome instability syndromes are a group of disorders characterized by chromosomal instability
and breakage. They often lead to an increased tendency to develop certain types of malignancies.
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b. Compare the old and new physical anthropology. 20
Intro- Classification Physical Anthropology into Old and New by Washburn
Scope – Vast than Old Physical Anthropology
1. Understanding processes of evolution
2. Analytical and multidisciplinary approach ; descriptive studies only a small part
3. Mechanisms involved in the problem; classification not the major area
4. Theory making is critical and hypothesis backed by experimentation
5. Newer fields – blood group systems, Human variation, Adaptation, paleoanthropology,
Primatology, Human genetics etc
“New Physical Anthropology” New domains:
1. Serological studies
2. Biochemical genetics
3. Studies of evolutionary factors such as mutation, natural selection and gene flow.
4. Primatological studies, of their biology and behaviour.
5. Demographic studies, especially of factors that affect inbreeding and genetic drift and the
biological consequences of formal kinship and alliance systems.
6. Anthropometric and anthroposcopic studies, with reference to nutritional factors and ensuing
demographic characters.
7. Ecological studies dealing with biological and cultural adaptations.
c. Genetic Screening 15
Genetic screening also known as DNA testing, allows the determination of bloodlines and the genetic
diagnosis of vulnerabilities to inherited diseases. In agriculture, a form of genetic testing known as
progeny testing can be used to evaluate the quality of breeding stock. In population ecology, genetic
testing can be used to track genetic strengths and ulnerabilities of species populations.
In addition to studying chromosomes to the level of individual genes, genetic testing in a broader
sense includes biochemical tests for the possible presence of genetic diseases, or mutant forms of
genes associated with increased risk of developing genetic disorders
3. a. Explain different social and cultural theories of population. 25
Intro -Def of Theories of Population growth
Classification – Biological, Social/Cultural, Economic
Social-Cultural theories –
1. Social capillarity theory by Dumont
2. Theory of voluntarism by Fetter
3. Theory of Individuality by Nitti
4. Theory of Social maladjustment by George
Conclusion – No single theory have been able to accurately explain population growth ; Multiple
factors involved .
b. Bring about different indices of measuring mortality rate. 15
Measures of mortality:
1. Crude Death Rate (CDR)
2. Age Specific Death Rate (ASDR)
3. IMR Infant Mortality Rate
4. Cause specific Death Rate (CSDR)
5. Life Expectancy at Birth
Give formulae for the above
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c. Comment on changing sex ratio in Indian population, giving comparisons of SCs, STs and all
India population. 10
STs constitute 8.6% of Indian population and have literacy rates much less than the non tribal , non
SC populations. But they report the highest Sex Ratios among all categories of population
Social group Child Sex Ratio Sex Ratio Female literacy
ST 957 990 49.35%
SC 933 945 56.46
Others 910 937 68.19
India 919 943 64.64%
• Better sex ratios are indicative of both positive and negative aspects such as culture of gender
parity, lack of access to pre natal medical diagnosis etc.
• But, the recent trend observed is- falling Sex Ratio among STs. This has been a cause of
concern.
• The other major concern is falling child population.
• Best CSR in STs- Chattisgarh- 993, Odissa- 980
• Odisha and Jharkhand, two of India’s poorest states with sizeable tribal population, are the
best performing states when it comes to improved sex ratio of STs when compared to states
like Rajasthan (948), Uttar Pradesh (952), Jammu and Kashmir (924) and Bihar (958), which
also have tribal people. Goa tops the list when it comes to sex ratio of tribal population with
1,046 females per 1,000 males; it is followed by Kerala (1,035), Arunachal Pardesh (1,032),
Odisha (1,029) and Chhattisgarh (1,020)
4. a. Cellular theories of aging. 15
Intro - Define Ageing
Body – Numerous theories proposed but none has been able to explain the process of ageing
satisfactorily.
Biological theories –
A) Cellular theories – defects in intra cellular processes leads to ageing
1. Theory of genetic blue print by Hayflick
2. Theory of Free radical reactions
3. The error theories
B) Extra cellular theories – alterations in extra cellular substances leads to ageing
1. Collagen theory
2. Immunological theory
3. pacemaker theory
C) Modern theories of ageing
1. Programmed longevity
2. Wear and tear theory
3. Strechler theory
4. Telomeric theory
Describe briefly each of the theories with examples.
Conclusion – While the process of ageing still remains elusive, Biological theories have gained
comparatively larger acceptance.
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b. Cross cultural studies of fertility in India. 15
Definition – Fertility refers to actual avg no. of children a woman gives birth to in the population
under study
Fertility studies – introduced by Boas – study of Australian aborigines, kwakiutl Indians. Considered
Matrilocality and Patrilocality as the basis.
Other important studies –
1. Dr. DN Majumdar – tribes of Central India – found that linkages presented by boas between
locality rules and fertility is not valid in Indian tribes.
2. Carr Saunders – a) primitive backward tribes – higher fertility
b) Munda and santhals – low fertility due to settled nature of living
c) Location of village – villages located close to urban centres – low fertility
3. Westermarck – Dying tribes – higher fertility eg) jarawas
In recent times, Anthropological studies have also analysed role of income levels of women ,
feminisation of agriculture, Religion on fertility rates.
c. Stages of death. 20
Dying is a shutting down of the body's physical, sensory, and mental functions, and it happens in
stages. This process can take minutes or months, depending on what is going on inside the person's
body.
Here are specific signs your body is shutting down that may occur during the active stages of dying
that indicate that the end of life is near
Few stages of death may be explained as
Body System Shutdown
Confusion
Decreased Level of Consciousness
Changes in Circulation to Extremities
Changes in Skin Color
Breathing Changes
a. Body fat as a genetic marker
• A trait can be used as a genetic marker in studies of cell lines, individuals, families and popula-tions
if:
• it is genetically determined
• can be accurately classified
• has a simple unequivocal pattern of inheritance
• has heritable variations common enough to allow to be classified as genetic polymorphism.
• Fat Levels as a genetic Marker:
• In the body fat subcutaneous fat has a significant role to play in heat or cold tolerance. In warm cli-
mates it is thin and thick in cold climates. The subcutaneous fat depends on age, sex,heredity and en-
vironment.
• Sex wise difference exists in volume of fat & velocity of its formation.
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• The fat level depends on genetics and environment.
• The deposition of subcutaneous fat shows a definite-pattern on the body-subs copular, abdominal re-
gion, arms, thighs, buttocks, calf in the limbs are important places.
• Fat levels also show correlation with B.P levels.
• Abraham Tylor proved that over weight and high fat in adulthood are directly linked to hypertension
cardio vascular, renal diseases.
• There is clear association of life style and body fat which is evident in blooming obesity especially
in children in countries like USA.
• Different cultures have different standards and norms for appropriate body size and shape, which
can effect how children perceive their body image. Some cultures celebrate a fuller body shape
more than others, but researchers at the Center for Obesity Research and Education (CORE) at
Temple University have found that an overweight or obese child can still be unhappy with his or
her body, despite acceptance from within their ethnic group.
5b. Down’s Syndrome
Intro – Explain DS as trisomy 21
Morphological features in brief
Anthropological studies-
1. Walker etal – skull evidence of women skeleton in santa rosa islands in central America
2. Study by Brothwell etal -1959- identified possible case of DS in Saxon child
Conclusion –
Inspite being the most common chromosomal aberration, anthropological studies are very limited viz
among primitive groups.
Imp anthropological works-
On the Antiquity of Trisomy 21: Moving Towards a Quantitative Diagnosis of Down Syndrome in
Historic Material Culture - by John M. Starbuck - Dealt with historicity of studies of Down's
syndrome.
5C Genome Study
Genomewide association studies are starting to turn up increasingly reliable disease markers. A
genome-wide association study (GWA study, or GWAS), also known as whole genome association
study (WGA study, or WGAS), is an observational study of a genome-wide set of genetic variants in
different individuals to see if any variant is associated with a trait. GWASs typically focus on
associations between single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and traits like major human diseases,
but can equally be applied to any other genetic variants and any other organisms
When applied to human data, GWA studies compare the DNA of participants having varying
phenotypes for a particular trait or disease.
Examples/Case Study:
A genome study project initiated by the Tea Board of India, to establish the origins and speciality of
Indian teas, has now reached an advanced stage. The study is being conducted on Assam teas to
establish it as a product of India.
It may be mentioned that there are three different botanical types of tea cultivars used by the Indian
tea industry — Assam type , Cambod type and China type. Other than tea cultivars, there are wild
types/species of tea plants used for research and breeding purposes, which are maintained by the
various tea research institutes in their germplasm plots.
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The Commerce Ministry official said that the multi-institutional project on genome sequencing is
extremely important for establishing the whole genetic make-up of India tea germplasm, in addition to
molecular methods like DNA fingerprinting and DNA barcoding
5d. Single factor and multiple factor inheritance in man
Genetics is the study of variation. Without variation, genetic analysis at any level becomes difficult.
In many cases, this genetic analysis of variation involves striking differences between the organisms
(Red or White petals,Long or Short wings) etc. In other cases, however, biological variation is
difficult to categorise. E.g. the height and weight in human beings are traits that vary continuously in
the popula-tion. Distinct classes cannot be identified for such traits, making it difficult to analyse by
conventional genetics methods. Quantitative genetics is the discipline that deals with these couples
traits.
• Most quantitative traits involve contribution of many different genes - sometimes a single gene may
exert primary influence but usually there are many equally influential genes.
• Quantitative traits are often influenced by environmental factors.
• R. A Fisher proposed “Quantitative traits were not determined by single genes, but many and their
alleles each had small and approximately additive effects”.
• A phenotype of an individual depended on it genotype at all the relevant loci, with each allele
adding or subtracting a small amount. Traits that have these features are called Polygenic Traits.
• fisher also proposed that many environmental factors influenced the trait by adding or subtracting
effects in a manner similar to that of all the genetic loci. This combination of multiple environmental
and genetic factors determined the phenotype of an individual.
5e. Effects of migration on genetic frequency of population.
Genetic variation describes naturally occurring genetic differences among individuals of the same
species. This variation permits flexibility and survival of a population in the face of changing
environmental circumstances. Consequently, genetic variation is often considered an advantage, as it
is a form of preparation for the unexpected.
Migration is the movement of organisms from one location to another. Although it can occur in
cyclical patterns (as it does in birds), migration when used in a population genetics context often
refers to the movement of individuals into or out of a defined population.
If the migrating individuals stay and mate with the destination individuals, they can provide a sudden
influx of alleles. After mating is established between the migrating and destination individuals, the
migrating individuals will contribute gametes carrying alleles that can alter the existing proportion of
alleles in the destination population.
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6. a. Immunological genetics. 15
Immunogenetics is a subspeciality of Human genetics that studies the relationship between genetics
and immunology. Immunogenetics helps in understanding the pathogenesis of several autoimmune
and infectious diseases.
Explain immunological constitution –
• Antigens
• Antibodies
• lymphocytes
• plasma cells
• blood groups
Scope –
1. Microbial studies –
i) Auto immune diseases eg) Rheumatoid arthritis
ii) Immune deficiency diseases eg) imminoglobulinemia
2. Organ Transplantation - Immunogenetics deals with acceptance and rejection of grafts, response of
T cells and B cells to the transplanted graft
3. Blood group related studies – problems in blood transfusion, incompatibility in rh factor
Techniques –
1. Western blotting
2. Immunofluroscence
3. Immunohistochemistry
Conclusion – Thus Immunogentics addresses antigen-antbody based disorders in different
immunologic systems in an individual.
b. Genetic polymorphism and selection. 20
It is the occurrence of two or more genetically determined forms in a population whose frequency is
greater than 1%.
Whereas phenotypic polymorphism is the presence of several distinctive form of phenotypic trait
with in a population with frequency greater than 1%.
The reasons for these variations are:
1. Genetic variation: ex. Blood group of the person.
2. Environmental variation: ex. Language.
3. Variation based on environment and genotype ex. IQ.
Sources of genetic polymorphism:
1. Mutation
2. Selection
3. Migration etc.,
Genetic polymorphism is classified based on site of occurrence:
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a) Genetic polymorphism at cell level: various cells are characterized by the presence of
antigenic molecules on their surfaces. Ex. Blood group, Rh typing etc.,
b) Genetic polymorphism at the level of DNA and gene: all inherited differences in relation to
colour, height, blood group etc, represent the changes in the structure of gene. Such
polymorphism is called RFLP-RESTRICTION FRAGMENT LENGTH POLYMORPHISM.
Ex. Sickle cell anemia.
c) Genetic polymorphism at chromosome level: due to numerical and structural abnormalities of
chromosomes.
GENETIC POLYMORPHISM AND SELECTION:
Based on selection genetic polymorphism can be sub-divided into:
1. Permanent polymorphism and stabilizing selection: stable polymorphic features are
maintained in the population by stabilizing selection, i.e by removing those individuals
who deviate from the mean population. Ex. Intersex people.
2. Transient polymorphism and directional selection: under this shift the population mean
for some character in the direction of environmental change due to shift in environmental
demands. Ex. Industrial melanism- black moth(mutated white) and white moth.
3. Balanced polymorphism and heterozygote selection or superiority of heterozygotes: in
this heterozygotes show superiority to both the homozygotes, as heterozygotes are
favored by selection. Ex. Sickle cell anemia, Thalassemia.
Thus population with different polymorphic traits can explore for an adaptive success.
c. Biochemical methods of genetic studies in humans. 15
• Biochemistry is carried out at the cellular or subcellular level, generally on cell extracts.
Biochemical methods are applied to the main chemical compounds of genetics—notably DNA,
RNA, and protein.
• Biochemical techniques are used to determine the activities of genes within cells and to analyze
substrates and products of gene-controlled reactions. In one approach, cells are ground up and the
substituent chemicals are fractionated for further analysis.
• Special techniques (e.g., chromatography and electrophoresis) are used to separate the
components of proteins so that inherited differences in their structures can be revealed.
• For example, more than 100 different kinds of human hemoglobin molecules have been
identified. Radioactively tagged compounds are valuable in studying the biochemistry of whole
cells. For example, thymine is a compound found only in DNA; if radioactive thymine is placed
in a tissue-culture medium in which cells are growing, genes use it to duplicate themselves.
• Chemical tests are used to distinguish certain inherited conditions of humans; e.g., urinalysis and
blood analysis reveal the presence of certain inherited abnormalities—phenylketonuria (PKU),
cystinuria, alkaptonuria, gout, and galactosemia.
7. a. Race crossing in man. 10
• Define - concept that refers to inter racial bredding or marriages aming humans.
• Explain – Concept of race is challenged → concept of Race crossing lacks empirical basis.
But the concept is useful to study global migration
• View of Herskovits – RC is not a new phenomenon but occuring for ages
• Even restrictions on choosing mates in different cultures did not prevent RC
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• Eg) Sqawman in American frontier ; Intercaste marriages in India
• All human groups – more or less mixed ancestory. There is no pure race
• Study By Davenport –
• Question of RC is linked to arousal of emotions and ethnocentrism. The way we perceive RC
is not objective at all. Eg) TB among American negroes is seen as loss of beauty rather than
seeing as historical result of RC with Europeans
Conclusion - Selective Eugenics and Ethnocentrism is seen in the study of RC
7b Biological basis of Racial criteria.
Intro – definition of Race by Dr. DN Majumdar
Conditions for selecting criteria by Boyd
Criteria –
a) Morphological – i) morphometric ii) Morphoscopic
b) Genetic
Morphological Criteria of Race
1. Skin Colour
2. Morphological Characteristics of Hair
3. Morphological Characteristics of Eye
4. Morphological Characteristics of Nose
5. Morphological Characteristics of Lips
6. Morphological Characteristics of Face
7. Morphological Characteristics of Head
8. Morphological Characteristics of Ear
9. Morphological Characteristics of Body Build
Genetic Criterion of Race
1. Blood Groups
2. Other Genetic Traits
a. Ear Wax
b. PTC Tasters and Non-tasters
c. Amino acid Excretion in Urine
d. Dermatoglyphics
Analysis – No criteria can succesfully divide human population into races. Moreover, Concept of
Race declared as myth .Hence tendency of finding racial criteria also became futile exercise
c. Genetic and environmental factors influencing human growth and development.
Normal physical growth during childhood is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors.
Environmental influences on human growth and development:
• Environmental influences on human physical growth and development can be presented in
form of influences of social and economic factors; family and household characteristics;
urbanization/modernization; nutrition; and features of the physical environment such as
altitude, temperature and climate.
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• roles of pollutants and other aspects of the human-made environment in affecting patterns of
human growth and development, specifically the timing of sexual maturation and the
development of obesity.
Genetic factors in physical growth and development:
• Genetic studies have examined whether there are shared genetic effects between aspects of
child growth and later health outcomes.
• Study on influence of genetic factors on growth in stature during childhood and determine
whether there are pleiotropic effects of genes influencing both childhood growth and later
adult health outcomes using familial data.
• Serial stature data (i.e., birth through adulthood) from participants in the Fels Longitudinal
Study were used to derive stature growth parameters. Heritability estimates for the growth
parameters are generally high and statistically significant ranging
• Results of genetic studies influence show that stature growth parameters are significantly
related to several adult health outcomes including stature, weight, BMI, systolic and diastolic
blood pressure, percent body fat, fat-free mass, skeletal muscle mass in the arms and legs, and
total body bone mass.
8. a. Scope of Ecological anthropology. 20
Ecological anthropology focuses upon the complex relations between people and their environment. It
investigates the ways that a population shapes its environment and the subsequent manners in which
these relations form the population's social, economic, and political life.
Scope - based on the stages of emergence of Ecological Anthropology
1.Cultural ecology (Julian Steward)
Explores adaptive responses to similar environments that gave rise to cross-cultural similarities
2. Neo Evolutionism (Elman Service) and Neo Functionalism(Roy Rappoport)
- Neo evolutionism emphasised establishment of small evolutionary stages – taking into account
relationship between culture and environment
- Neo Functionalists examines social organization and culture of specific populations as functional
adaptations which permit the populations to exploit their environments successfully
3. Processual ecological anthropology - examines "shifts and changes in individual and group
activities, and they focus on the mechanism by which behavior and external constraints influence each
other"
In the recent decades, there has been a gradual adaptation of the discipline to not only focusing on
localized human/ecosystem interactions, but including global influences and how the global
community is affecting how groups across the world interact with their ecosystems –
New areas-
1. Study of paleoecology - examines human interaction with the environment from an archaeological
perspective.
2. ethnoecologies of indigenous populations
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b. Stage of an infant in human growth and development
Growth may be defined as a quantitative increase in size or mass. Measurements of height in
centimeters or weight in kilograms indicate how much growth has taken place in a child.
Development is defined as a progression of changes, either quantitative or qualitative, that lead from
an undifferentiated or immature state to a highly organized, specialized, and mature state.
Physical maturation is measured by functional capacity; for example, the maturation of bipedal
walking results from changes with age in the skeletal, muscular, and motor skills of the infant and
child.
Human growth, development, and maturation have evolved, sometimes as discrete processes but more
often as an integrated series of biological events.
Fetal anthropology is a new discipline in physical anthropology. With its emergence the studies on
growth and development are extended to fetus. Till recently, the study of fetus was confined to
medical science only, but once anthropological methodology is applied to its study, we can predict
growth indices of various populations at the fetal level. The interaction between anthropology and
medical science has been further established with the emergence of this discipline
Infancy: the first stage of growth and development stretches from birth to around 18 or 24 months.
During this period of development, young children will primarily learn through their sensory
perceptions and their visual and touch experiences of the world around them. Infants are also, during
this stage, developing their motor skills and learning about the cause and effect of their actions
c. Blood groups among criminal tribes of India. 15
• Denotified Tribes (DNTs), also known as Vimukta Jati,[1] are the tribes that were listed
originally under the Criminal Tribes Act of 1871,[2] as Criminal Tribes and "addicted to the
systematic commission of non-bailable offences." Once a tribe became "notified" as criminal,
all its members were required to register with the local magistrate, failing which they would
be charged with a "crime" under the Indian Penal Code. The Criminal Tribes Act of 1952
repealed the notification, i.e. 'de-notified' the tribal communities. This Act, however, was
replaced by a series of Habitual Offenders Acts, that asked police to investigate a "suspect's"
"criminal tendencies" and whether their occupation is "conducive to settled way of life." The
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denotified tribes were reclassified as "habitual offenders" in 1959. The name "Criminal
Tribes" is itself a misnomer as no definition of tribe denotes occupation, but they were
identified as tribes "performing" their primary occupation. The first census was in 1871 and at
that time there was no consensus nor any definition of what constitutes a "tribe". The terms
"tribe" and "caste" were used interchangeably for these communities.
• Cite Imp of Serological studies
• DN Majumdar work: he studies ABO and Rh blood groups among Criminal Tribes of UP,
elaborate his views