TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. EDITORIAL - Pleading for efficient psychotherapy - Irina Holdevici
Page 2
2. High demands and uncertainty. Pilot study regarding the effects of workload and
job insecurity on work-family conflict - Cristiana Cătălina Cicei
Page 5
3. The construction and application of a questionnaire that highlights the correct and
incorrect recognition of details concerning gadget type products – pilot study ––
Tudor Caius Ciprian
Page 15
4. Brand parameters in Romanian financial-banking institutions – Alina Muscalu
Page 26
5. The concept of subconscious – a theoretical evolution synthesis - Andra Crăciun
Page 33
6. The relationship between teacher - student communication and the critical thinking
abilities of the students from a Romanian faculty of psychology – Mariana-Simona
Cocosila, Lucica Serban, Crenguta Oprea, Andreea Stan
Page 38
7. BOOK REVIEW - Short term psychotherapies by Irina Holdevici - Reviewed by
Vlad Burtaverde & Teodor Mihaila
Page 49
EDITORIAL
PLEADING FOR EFFICIENT PSYCHOTHERAPY
IRINA HOLDEVICI
The modern age is defined by a significant rise of stress factors’ influence that
act on both individuals and groups from and towards multiple directions. The fast
pace of changes in society, informational burst coming from mass-media networks,
internet and social networks, the more and more complex requests of the
professional and social environments, the tough competition in all fields of activity,
diminishing of religious and moral systems’ influence which enfold the
enhancement of fundamentalist organizations and last but not least, the effects of
economic crisis, all put pressure on all generations. Under these conditions, the
number of psychological and psychosomatic disorders is continuously rising. From
this perspective and not only, the intervention of psychological counseling and
psychotherapy specialists becomes necessary.
We’re entitled to say that nowadays the burn-out syndrome or panic attacks
are reported as being extremely present and frequent among many patients. These
are only some of the reasons why the work of psychotherapists and psychological
counselors is needed.
The costs of these interventions must be as low as possible, and the time of
period they involve should be as short as possible so they would be considered as
highly efficient.
While during the first half of the 20th century, Freudian psychoanalysis held
the supremacy of psychotherapy, being considered for a long time as the only
method worth considering in this field, things changed in the next 30-40 years. The
psychoanalytic approach is a long-term process, with high costs which uses several
criteria of accepting patients in such undertaking (age, intellectual and cultural
level, personality traits, and others).
In time, psychoanalysis started to be replaced by short-term types of
psychotherapy, out of which the most popular seems to be the Cognitive –
Behavioral approach, which benefits from integral discount through health
2
insurance companies from the United States of America and many of the European
Union Countries.
Besides Cognitive – Behavioral psychotherapy, some other short-term
psychotherapy systems were developed out of which we mention, with no intention
of making a hierarchy: short-time dynamic psychotherapy, strategic therapy,
systemic therapy, modular-contextual approach, problem-centered psychotherapy,
solution-centered psychotherapy, the approach of realistic choices or various types
of Ericksonian hypnotherapy.
As for the hypnotherapeutic techniques we may emphasize the role they play
in sustaining a more efficient therapy strategy. Making an algorithm out of a
therapy program takes several steps to be taken, and when we refer to
hypnotherapy, whether Ericksonian or classical, it is necessary to point out a few
aspects. In the psychotherapy cabinet any such intervention starts with evaluation
the client’s issues and breaking the myths related to hypnosis and relaxation
procedures. The explaining given during this process will assure good development
of applying hypnotherapeutic techniques assuring beneficial results for the client.
When we speak of psychotherapy efficiency it is necessary to emphasize that
compiling mixed interventions to contribute to treating disposition disorders,
improving communication and regaining functional equilibrium there’s the
condition of developing a modern and efficient therapy process.
In practice an intense labor is taking place and the package of used techniques
represents the tools that any psychotherapist uses, no matter the psychotherapeutic
approach. These are the arguments that today lead us to the urge of implementing
efficient therapeutic formulas that address solving, improving and, when possible,
healing the suffering that clients bring to therapy.
In other words, the psychotherapeutic process which also has a prophylactic,
repairing and self-forming character it is needed that the psychotherapy
interventions address clients with psychological, psycho-soma, non-psychotic
disorders or people interested in optimizing performance in several activity
domains (profession, sports, learning, and arts).
As for the cognitive-behavioral approaches, for example, we will consider the
fact that the psychotherapeutic process does not excessively analyze past conflicts,
while the present and the future are emphasized.
Also, the proper systematic character of this approach proves its efficiency
mostly when the client is approached in the social context of their activity.
Another way of improving the efficiency of the psychotherapy process is
using, during the cognitive-behavioral treatment, several given tasks (homework).
This system involves meeting or quantifying several activities, by practicing new
types of behavior or practicing relaxation or self-hypnosis according to the
therapist’s suggestions.
We must emphasize the fact that this type of psychotherapy does not involve
psychodiagnosis in its classical meaning, but using journals and self-evaluating
3
scales of the problems and symptoms that the client brought to discussion in
therapy, and also obtaining measurable results regarding the degree of reaching the
client’s objectives.
The nosography indications of an efficient psychotherapy model we propose
include the following:
Emotional disorders: generalized anxious disorders, panic attacks, agoraphobia
with or without panic attacks, specific phobias, social phobia, moderate
depressive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorders.
Psycho-soma disorders: asthma, hypertension, colitis, gastritis and ulcers,
dermatologic conditions (pruritus, psoriasis), endocrinology conditions.
Alimentary disorders: anorexia, bulimic disorder, obesity.
Psychogenic sexual dysfunctions.
Motor neurosis: stuttering, nervous stereotypes.
Overcoming pain in chronic psychosomatic diseases or in the case of recovery
after accidents or physical trauma.
Couples and family relationships.
Behavioral disorders of children and teenagers.
Risk habits: smoking, abusive alcohol or drugs use, gambling.
Optimizing performance in professional, sports or learning activities.
Combating pre-competition or professional fright.
We must add that this type of psychotherapy does not apply to psychotic
patients (suffering from schizophrenia, paranoid disorder, unipolar or bipolar
disorder), people with mental deficiency, patients suffering from several types of
dementia or patients with personality disorders.
Based on a consistent clinical experience and as shown in several of our
volumes we may firmly assert that an efficient therapeutic process does not include
only a collection of randomly combined methods, but it’s most of all a rigorous
process based on a well-established therapeutic plan.
As a conclusion, we’d like to emphasize that the interventions that take place
in a psychotherapy cabinet need strong preparation and continuous professional
training of the psychotherapist. This training includes a series of well-defined steps
according to the specific of the psychotherapy approach each therapist chooses to
embrace, and also need for the psychotherapist to be a person interested and open
in understanding human psyche under each aspect.
We may say that psychotherapy efficiency represents, after all, the result of
the two creators that work together in the cabinet: the client and the
psychotherapist.
4
HIGH DEMANDS AND UNCERTAINTY. PILOT STUDY
REGARDING THE EFFECTS OF WORKLOAD AND JOB
INSECURITY ON WORK-FAMILY CONFLICT
CRISTIANA CĂTĂLINA CICEI
National School of Political and Administrative Sciences
College of Communication and Public Relations
Abstract
In the last years, organizations were faced with economic hardships that impacted
working conditions and affected employees’ well-being. Overtime work, workload, and job
insecurity can represent factors that increase the conflict between work and the family
domains. The current research is a pilot study based on a convenience sample of 98 dual-
couple employees working in private Romanian organizations (M=38.81, SD=8.81), that
were assessed using a multidimensional work-family scale (Carlson, Kackmar, & Williams,
2000), a global measure of job insecurity (Mauno, Leskinen, & Kinnunen, 2001) and the
workload subscale of Occupational Stress Scale (House, McMichael, Wells, Kaplan, &
Landerman, 1979). Results indicated that workload and job insecurity predict work-family
conflict, the strongest predictor being workload. Also, gender differences were highlighted
in experiencing WFC, women reporting higher levels of work-family conflict. However, due
to the small size and structure of the sample, the generalization of the results should be
made with cautions. Future studies might examine, on more balanced and diverse samples,
the relationship between the two stressors and work-family conflict.
Keywords: work-family conflict, workload, job insecurity, private organizations.
*Corresponding author: Cristiana Cătălina Cicei Email: [email protected]
5
1. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
According to Shirom (2003), in modern market economies, employees are
faced, among others, with increased job insecurity, pressures for working long
hours, and an ill-defined separation between work and family. The investigation of
the predictors and outcomes of work-family conflict (WFC) represents a leading
area of IO/OB research (Eby, Casper, Lockwood, Bordeaux and Brinley, 2005, p.
142), Bellavia and Frone (2005) considering that the individual, the family and the
work role environment represent sources from which the work-family predictors
can be traced from.
Comprehensive research examined gender differences in experiencing WFC,
but according to Eby et al. (2005), mixed evidences exist. For example, Geurts and
Demerouti (2003, p. 291) indicate that no or little differences are highlighted in
empirical studies, and Byron (2005, p. 186) provides evidence that very small
relationships can be identified in meta-analytic studies. Also, in their research, Hill,
Hawkins, Märtinson and Ferris (2003) indicated that fathers experienced equal
levels of work-family conflict in comparison with mothers; however differences
arose when examining family-work conflict (Hill et al., 2003). On the other side,
authors such as Carlson, Kacmar and Williams (2000) reported that women
experience higher levels FWC (time, strain and behavior-based) and WFC (only
strain-based) in comparison with men. In a Romanian study focused on the
validation and examination of the psychometric properties of Carlson et al. (2000)
multidimensional WFC scale, results highlighted that women experience higher
behavior-based work-family conflict and strain-based family-work conflict in
comparison with men, which reported higher levels of time-based work-family
conflict (Şulea, Vîrgă, & Galben, 2010).
If demographic variables can be considered weak predictors of WFC
(Kinnunen & Mauno, 2008, p. 134), in her meta-analysis, Byron (2005) indicates
that work factors have stronger associations with work-family conflict.
Work overload has consistently emerged as one of the strongest work-family
conflict predictors (Geurts & Demerouti, 2003, p. 294). Marshall and Barnett
(1993) suggest that workload represent a significant antecedent of the strains
between work and family. Workload concurs to high levels of WFC in national
(e.g. Netherlands: Bakker & Geurts, 2004), or cross-national studies (Spector et al.,
2007). In a longitudinal investigation, Ilies, Schwind, Wagner, Johnson, DeRue and
Ilgen (2007) indicated that the perception of daily workload represents a substantial
predictor of work-to-family conflict and affects.
From another angle of analysis, workload can also impact well-being through
the agency of work-family conflict (Geurts, Kompier, Roxburgh, & Houtman,
2003).
6
According to Probst (2005), research highlights that job insecurity, one major
economic stressor, is increasing in the contemporary workforce. O’Driscoll and
Brough (2010) state that during economic hardship, the number studies examining
the effects of role changes, including job insecurity, is increasing, Liu and Spector
(2005) indicating that job insecurity will be considered a more significant stressor
in countries with high unemployment rates.
In the research focused on job insecurity, one open problem is related to the
absence of a comprehensive definition and measure (Probst, 2005). However, a
general feature that can be extracted from the majority of the definitions is that,
according to Sverke and Hellgren (2002, p. 26), job insecurity is a subjective
aspect, grounded on the employees’ perceptions on their work environment. For
example, Probst (2003) defines job security as “the perceived stability and
continuance of one's job as one knows it” (p. 452), Sverke and Hellgren (2002, p.
26) considering that job insecurity regards „employees’ negative reactions to the
changes concerning their jobs”.
The relationship between job insecurity and work-family conflict begins to
draw researchers’ attention, but the number of studies is somewhat limited. For
example, Mauno and Kinnunen (2002) provide evidence that job insecurity is more
frequently encountered is the private sector, women from dual-earner couples
experiencing it stronger than their male counterparts. Also, Mauno and Kinnunen
(1998, as cited in Geurts & Demerouti, 2003, p. 294) indicate that job insecurity is
associated with both directions of WFC. Richter, Näswall, Richter and Sverke
(2010) examined job insecurity and WFC, workload partially mediating his
relationship, but only when having in view men. Jansen, Kant, Kristensen and
Nijhuis (2003) indicate that among other factors, such as shift work, work
demands, or dependent care responsibilities for sick family members, for men job
insecurity represents a risk criterion for work-family conflict.
2. OBJECTIVES AND HYPOTHESES
Starting from these theoretical considerations, the present paper investigates
the relationship between workload, job insecurity and work-family conflict, also
examining gender differences associated with experiencing WFC on a sample of
banking and retail employees from private organizations. The current study is
exploratory, focusing on employees from dual-earner couples, in occupations with
high levels of pressure, and in times of labor market uncertainty. Also, due to the
fact that according to Mauno and Kinnunen (2002), job insecurity is much
frequently experienced by employees from the private than the public sector, this
study does not analyze the differences between the two working sectors.
7
2.1. OBJECTIVES
Objective 1
The first objective of the study is to explore the relationship between
workload, job insecurity and work-family conflict on a sample of employees from
dual-earner couples working in the private sector.
Objective 2
Also, having in view the fact that according to Eby et al. (2005) mixed
evidence exists regarding the reports of WFC levels across gender, the second
objective of the study is to examine gender differences in experiencing work-
family conflict. Thus, two hypotheses were formulated:
2.2. HYPOTHESES
Hypothesis 1
Workload and job insecurity will predict the work-family conflict reported by
employees from private organizations.
Hypothesis 2
Gender differences prevail in experiencing WFC, women reporting higher
levels of work-family conflict in comparison with men.
3. METHOD
3.1. PARTICIPANTS
The research is based on a convenient non-probabilistic sample, consisting of
98 employees from three Romanian private organizations, 62 from the banking
sector and 36 from the retail sector. From the 98 participants in the research, 72
were women and 26 men, with ages ranging from 28 to 57 years (M=38.81,
SD=8.81). All were part from dual-earner couples, and 54 had at least one child.
Also, 9 participants had dependants in their care, other than children (older parents,
sick relatives). All the employees were working full-time, their organizational
tenure being of 4.5 years (SD=3.64).
3.2. INSTRUMENTS
Work-family conflict was measured using the multidimensional WFC scale of
Carlson, Kacmar and Williams (2000). The scale is composed of 18 items that
8
assess the direction of the conflict (work interference with family and family
interference with work) and the three forms of conflict (time, strain and behavior
based conflict). The scale was translated and adapted in Romanian by Şulea et al.
(2010). For the current study, the 9 items that measure the work-to-family direction
of the conflict were selected. The Cronbach alpha for this scale was .87.
Workload was measured using the workload subscale of Occupational Stress
Scale (House, McMichael, Wells, Kaplan, & Landerman, 1979). According to
Fields (2002, p. 135), the scale measures the frequency of work-related stressful
events, being composed of five subscales, namely: responsibility pressures, quality
concerns, role conflict, job vs. non-job conflict and workload. The workload
subscale is composed of three items, the internal consistency reliability being of
α=.73.
Job insecurity was assessed using a global measure composed of 4 items.
Mauno, Leskinen and Kinnunen (2001) examined, in a 3-year longitudinal study,
the stability of job insecurity and also tested the psychometric properties of four
job insecurity scales (a global, importance, probability, and a powerlessness scale).
The global scale was considered to be a reliable measure of the threat of job loss,
(Mauno et al., 2001, p. 930). Also, according to Mauno et al. (2001, p. 932) global
measures of job insecurity do not cause multiple collinearity problems when
examining other job stressors. The scale used in the study measures the threat of
job loss, being composed of 4 items (Mauno et al., 2002), low scores indicating
high job discontinuity. The scale was translated and back-translated by two experts
with English proficiency and the psychometric properties were examined. For
example, for the current sample, the Cronbach alpha for this scale was α=.75.
3.3. PROCEDURE
The current study has a cross-sectional design and is based on a convenience,
non-probabilistic, sample. The employees were informed about the topic of the
research; an online survey regarding work-family conflict was distributed to those
who agreed to participate. In average, the response rate was of 24%. The
employees were assured that the responses will be kept confidential and will be
used for research purposes only.
4. RESULTS
The collected data were analyzed using SPSS 16.0. The means and standard
deviations for each variable and the matrix correlation are presented in Table 1.
9
Table 1. Means. standard deviations and matrix correlations
for workload, job insecurity and work-family conflict
Variable Mean Std. Deviation 1 2 3
1. Workload 2.9702 .71509 -
2. Job insecurity 3.5437 .95666 .148 -
3. Work-family conflict 3.3659 .73757 .360** -.221* -
Correlations significant at *p < .05, **p < .01
As we can observe, a moderate correlation exists between workload and
work-family conflict (r=.360, p<.01), and a small negative correlation between job
insecurity and work-family conflict (r=-.221, p=.02). The negative correlation is
caused by the fact that higher scores of the global job insecurity scale reflect higher
job continuity. Thus, if the perceived workload is high, the employees experience a
stronger interference between the job and the family domains. Also, if the
employees perceive a higher job continuity, they will report smaller levels of work-
family conflict.
Multiple regression analysis was used to test if the two work stressors, namely
workload and job insecurity significantly predicted employees’ work-family
conflict. The two predictors explained 20.6% of the work-family conflict variance
(R²=.20, F(2, 95)=12.34, p<.01), with an effect size of f²=.25. Not surprisingly,
workload was the strongest WFC predictor (β=.401, p<.01), followed by job
insecurity (β=-.280, p=.003).
The second research objective consisted in examining gender differences in
experiencing work-family conflict. We hypothesized that women will report higher
levels of work-family conflict in comparison with men, due to the higher pressures
to which they are exposed. Thus, a t test for independent samples was calculated;
results indicated that women (M=3.47, SD=.73) experienced a higher work-family
conflict than men (M=3.08, SD= .71), t(96)=2.35, p=.02. Also, the effect size was
medium (d=.54). However, we must take into account the fact that, the composition
of the sample (a larger number of women, from dual-earner couples and some with
dependent responsibilities) and the peculiarities of the occupational sector (banking
and retail, in which the work demands are stronger) might influence these results.
5. CONCLUSIONS
The present study examined the relationship between workload and job
insecurity on a small sample of dual-earner employees in the Romanian private
sector. As predicted, women reported a stronger interference between work and
family domains. However, the results can be traced in the socio-demographical
traits of the sample (a large proportion of women from dual earner couples, over a
10
half having young children) and the specificity of the occupational sector. Also,
workload and job insecurity predicted work-family conflict, but the percent of
explained variance was moderate, the strongest predictor being workload.
The practical implications can be traced firstly in reducing the workload in the
banking and retail industries, enhancing job resources (Bakker & Geurts, 2004) and
introducing family-friendly arrangements, knowing that flexible work
arrangements and childcare benefits might help employees dealing with work-
family pressures (Allen, 2001). Also, organizations can reduce employees’ job
insecurity by enhancing organizational communication and constantly informing
employees on changes that might occur (Probst, 2005), or involving employees
more strongly in the decision-making processes (Probst, 2005).
However, a series of limitations must be highlighted, consisting primarily in
the small size, the structure of the sample, and the profile of the occupations. Thus,
larger and more diverse samples can be investigated in the future. Also, a
longitudinal research design is also appropriate when examining work-family
conflict (Geurts & Demerouti, 2003).
Focusing on the measurement of the constructs, job insecurity was assessed
using a global 4 item scale. Although Mauno et al. (2001) state that the current
measure can be used in studies that investigate job insecurity, Swerke and Hellgren
(2002, p. 25) suggest using multidimensional definition and measures in examining
job insecurity, Sverke, Hellgren and Näswall (2002, p. 256) enhancing the need for
developing and validating multidimensional job insecurity measures.
Furthermore, work-family conflict was measured having in view only one
direction (work interference with family), and the study did not focus on
investigating the interference between family and work or the three forms of WFC
(time, strain, and behavior-based); thus in a future study, the multidimensionality
of the constructs must be taken in consideration.
New directions of research consist in examining the differences between the
public and private sector, the moderating role of gender in the relationship between
workload and WFC, respectively job insecurity and WFC. Also, job insecurity and
work-family conflict might be examined through the mediating lens of workload
(as suggested by Richter et al., 2010). The positive effects of job resources (Lu et
al., 2009), and models testing the mediator role of work-family conflict on work-
demands and burnout (Peeters, Montgomery, Bakker & Schaufeli, 2005) should be
further examined on Romanian samples.
11
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14
THE CONSTRUCTION AND APPLICATION OF A
QUESTIONNAIRE
THAT HIGHLIGHTS THE CORRECT AND INCORRECT
RECOGNITION OF DETAILS CONCERNING GADGET TYPE
PRODUCTS
– PILOT STUDY –
TUDOR CAIUS CIPRIAN
University of Bucharest, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences,
Department of Psychology
Abstract
The present research represents the pilot study that precedes the construction and
application of a questionnaire that highlights the correct and incorrect recognition of
details concerning gadget type products, applied on a group of youths. This is the first of
three studies conducted on the same group of students. Method: A total number of 60
students from the College of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of
Bucharest, participated in this study, which took place within the Zapan Experimental
Laboratory of the same college. Every subject was individually tested, in front of a
computer, wearing stereo headphones that provided music from an MP3 Player. This
experiment’s testing instruments were a PowerPoint presentation of eight slides which
contained the description of the products “for sale”, the questionnaire and two melodies of
different genre, chosen in accordance with a series of observations, certified by previous
experiments. we used a questionnaire with 8 questions The results showed that the correct
recognition percentage was different for each item of the questionnaire that corresponded
to a different gadget type product. For instance, only 47% of the participants responded
correctly to the 7th question, while 68% responded correctly to the first question. These
results complete the other two studies.
Keywords: consumer decisions, musical background, gadget products, slow musical
rhythm.
Autor corespondent:
Caius Ciprian Tudor Email: [email protected]
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1. INTRODUCERE TEORETICĂ
Cercetările din domeniul psihologiei sociale, materializate în studii, cercetări
şi experimente realizate pe stradă, în magazine, dar şi în contexte organizaţionale
obişnuite, arată că un individ obişnuit nu este întotdeauna în măsură să-şi
controleze conştient întreg comportamentul şi, de fapt, fără să ştie, se lasă uneori
manipulat de factori de influenţare care par atât de inofensivi, de anodini, încât
omul nu realizează că aceştia îl pot determina să facă lucruri pe care nu le-ar fi
făcut în mod spontan. De fapt, tehnicile de influenţare se definesc exact prin faptul
că niciodată nu se exercită vreo presiune fizică, morală sau economică pentru a
induce subiecţilor comportamentul dorit de către persoana sau grupul care le
foloseşte. Mai mult decât atât, unele metode pot declanşa apariţia unui
comportament aşa-zis „spontan”, chiar dacă acesta nici măcar nu a fost solicitat
explicit de nimeni (Guéguen, 2004).
Numeroase studii au relevat că, de cele mai multe ori, atunci când se produc
schimbări spontane de atitudine ele sunt, de fapt, reacţii de imitare automată a unor
comportamente stereotipe (învăţate şi acumulate de-a lungul timpului pentru
calităţile lor de eficienţă), care sunt declanşate „accidental” de un sunet, un cuvânt
sau chiar o informaţie aparent minoră. Consumul ocupă o poziţie centrală în
mecanismul vieţii sociale, întrucât faptul că oamenii cumpără sau nu cumpără ceea
ce li se oferă influenţează direct producţia de bunuri şi prestarea de servicii, iar
acestea – la rândul lor – determină nivelul de trai şi relaţiile din societate (Iliescu &
Petre, 2010). Ca atare, comportamentul consumatorului este una dintre
preocupările majore ale multor specialişti.
Într-o accepţiune extinsă, atunci când se face referire la comportamentul
consumatorului se însumează de fapt toate acele acte decizionale ce se desfăşoară
la nivel individual sau de grup, legate direct de obţinerea şi utilizarea unor bunuri
sau servicii, în vederea satisfacerii unor nevoi actuale sau viitoare (Cătoiu, 1996).
Primele teorii despre consumator şi modul său de acţiune au fost emise de
către economişti, însă natura diferită a proceselor de decizie ce compun
comportamentul consumatorului de azi, precum şi necesitatea unor analize
complete, capabile să ofere predicţii viabile, au impus rapid o abordare
interdisciplinară, în care psihologia joacă un rol important.
Pentru a putea stabili comportamentul cumpărătorului orice studiu trebuie să
afle când, de ce, cum şi unde îşi fac oamenii cumpărăturile. Studiile au arătat că
oamenii care se ataşează afectiv de o marcă au uneori „un comportament iraţional,
accentuat sentimental şi cu tendinţe explicative de disculpare, care seamănă pe
alocuri cu tendinţele obsesiv-compulsive” (Iliescu & Petre, 2010, p.107).
Conceptul de marcă de prestigiu a fost definit în multiple moduri de specialişti şi se
referă doar la acele produse care se poziţionează sus în ceea ce priveşte calitatea,
unicitatea sau preţul. Marca de lux include minim cinci valori care, de altfel, o şi
16
definesc: vizibilitatea, unicitatea, valoarea socială, valoarea hedonistă şi calitatea
instrinsecă a produsului (Vigneron & Johnson, 1999 cit in Iliescu &Petre, 2010). În
funcţie de valoarea pe care o caută atunci când cumpără un produs de calitate,
consumatorii mărcilor de prestigiu se încadrează în cinci mari tipologii:
Consumatorul lăudăros. Apreciază produsele de lux pentru vizibilitate şi
acordă mare importanţă preţului şi etichetelor, întrucât aceştia sunt indicatorii de
prestigiu care se văd cel mai bine. Obiectivul principal al acestui cumpărător este
să-i impresioneze pe ceilalţi.
Consumatorul „la modă”. Acesta este genul care nu acordă aşa de multă
importanţă preţului, cât mai ales efectului pe care produsul îl are asupra celorlalţi.
Acest consumator este interesat de valoarea socială a produsului.
Consumatorul hedonist. E genul interesat în principal de propriile gânduri şi
afecte, urmărind în primul rând obţinerea unor beneficii afective. Acest cumpărător
acordă o importanţă mai mică preţului sau efectului pe care produsul îl are asupra
celorlalţi, în schimb este interesat de starea afectivă pe care i-o inspiră produsele
cumpărate.
Consumatorul perfecţionist. Acest gen de consumator este interesat de preţ
doar pentru că acesta este un bun indicator al caracteristicilor care dau calitatea
intrinsecă a produsului. Pe un perfecţionist îl interesează mărcile de prestigiu
numai pentru că se aşteaptă ca produsele respective să fie de calitate altfel, renunţă
imediat la ele. De aceea preferă produsele autentice, cu o lungă tradiţie de
comercializare, mizând pe faptul că aceste mărci nu vor să-şi păteze renumele
vânzând produse de calitate îndoielnică.
Consumatorul snob. E genul care apreciază exclusivitatea unui produs şi va
percepe preţul mare ca fiind un semn al rarităţii. Ca să fie sigur de unicitatea
produsului pe care îl cumpără, acest gen de consumator caută mărfurile scumpe
doar pentru că ceilalţi nu şi le permit.
Promoţiile erodează loialitatea cumpărătorilor faţă de mărcile concurente şi,
dacă sunt practicate de toate companiile, ajung să erodeze loialitatea faţă de orice
produs sau marcă preferate. În tentativa de a explora natura posibilelor legături
dintre muzică şi comportamentul cumpărătorilor s-au studiat atât referinţele
teoretice şi experimentale legate de această temă, cât şi rezultatele celor două
cercetări legate de influenţa ritmului muzical asupra timpului de vizualizare a
produselor de tip gadget (Chraif, Tudor, & Aniţei, 2012) precum şi a influenţei
ritmului muzical asupra numărului de recunoaşteri corecte şi incorecte a
caracteristicilor/detaliilor produselor de tip gadget (Chraif, Tudor, & Aniţei, 2012)
destinate comertului on-line.
Considerând că tema ar putea fi relevantă mai ales sub aspectul finalităţii ei
practice, acest studiu se doreşte a fi o cercetare empirică rezultatele fiind utile
tuturor companiilor care îşi vând produsele sau serviciile exclusiv prin internet,
întrucât le oferă acestora câteva argumente serioase în favoarea deciziei de a
reconfigura website-urile pe care le folosesc, astfel încât acestea să îşi
17
îndeplinească mai eficient scopul de a vinde cât mai multe produse şi servicii prin
adăugarea muzicii în pachetul ambiental oferit clienţilor.
2. OBIECTIVE
Obiectivul cercetării de faţă este explorarea unei posibile legături între muzica
ambientală şi comportamentul clienţilor în magazinele virtuale şi a fost sugerat de
necesitatea obţinerii unor răspunsuri la cel puţin două întrebări care apar atunci
când vorbim de interacţiunea dintre muzică şi comerţul on-line:
Folosirea unui fundal sonor muzical influenţează sau nu decizia de cumpărare a
vizitatorilor unui site comercial?
Care este muzica ambientală cea mai potrivită pentru un magazin virtual?
3. METODA
3.1. PARTICIPANȚI
La acest studiu au participat în calitate de subiecţi 60 de studenţi ai Facultăţii
de Psihologie şi Ştiinţele Educaţiei din Universitatea Bucureşti. Pentru a putea
deveni voluntari, ei au semnat un formular de consimţământ, prin care au confirmat
că au fost informaţi cu privire la condiţiile de desfăşurare şi obiectivele studiului.
Toţi participanţii la această cercetare au avut, în momentul testării, vârste
cuprinse între 20 şi 25 de ani, au declarat că utilizează frecvent internetul şi atunci
când au fost întrebaţi dacă au probleme cu auzul au răspuns negativ.
Repartiţia pe sexe a subiecţilor a fost alterată de preferinţa pentru studiul
domeniului psihologiei, raportul fiind de 52 de fete / 8 băieţi (faţă de 32/28, cât ar
fi trebuit să fie dacă s-ar fi respectat proporţia între sexe la nivel naţional).
3.2. INSTRUMENTE ȘI MATERIALE FOLOSITE
Testarea s-a desfăşurat în Laboratorul Zapan al Facultăţii de Psihologie şi
Ştiinţele Educaţiei din Universitatea Bucureşti. Fiecare subiect a fost testat
individual, aşezat în faţa unui computer, iar muzica audiată a fost generată de un
MP3 Player, fiind difuzată într-o pereche de căşti stereo.
Instrumentele de testare proprii acestui experiment au fost powerpoint-ul cu
cele opt pagini în care sunt descrise produsele „de vânzare”, chestionarul şi cele
două melodii, de genuri diferite, alese în conformitate cu o serie de observaţii
certificate prin experimente anterioare, citate în cadrul capitolului de referinţe
teoretice.
18
Chestionarul a fost alcătuit din 8 întrebări, dintre care numai șapte au fost
legate direct de slide-uri, ordinea întrebărilor nefiind aceeaşi cu ordinea apariţiei
reclamelor din power-point. Scopul chestionarului a fost acela de a verifica în ce
măsură muzica a influenţat cantitatea de informaţii corecte reţinute de participanţii
la testare. Cum întrebarea cu numărul 5, „Câte produse merită să fie cumpărate?”,
nu a fost formulată în acest scop, fiind doar o modalitate directă de a testa intenţia
de cumpărare a unui potenţial client, ea nu a fost inclusă în verificarea ipotezelor
prin prelucrări statistice ale rezultatelor obţinute la chestionar.
4. REZULTATE
Rezultatele analizei statistice descriptive sunt prezentate integral în Anexa 9,
dar pentru o mai bună ilustrare a semnificaţiei lor vom proceda la prezentarea
datelor obţinute la fiecare dintre cele șapte întrebări de către toţi cei 60 de
participanţi la testare.
O primă observaţie ar fi aceea că niciunul dintre participanţii la testare nu a
obţinut șapte răspunsuri corecte, cel mai mare număr de puncte înregistrat fiind
șase, obţinut numai de patru dintre cei 60 de subiecţi. Numărul răspunsurilor bune
nu a fost însă nici zero, un singur subiect obţinând doar un punct. Repartiţia
răspunsurilor corecte la toate cele șapte întrebări este prezentată în Tabelul 1.
Tabelul 1. Total răspunsuri corecte
Intrebare Frecvența Procent Procent cumulat
1 1 1.7 1.7
2 11 18.3 20.0 3 12 20.0 40.0
4 16 26.7 66.7
5 16 26.7 93.3 6 4 6.7 100.0
Total 60 100
ÎNTREBAREA 1: CÂT COSTĂ ASPIRATORUL PENTRU TASTATURĂ?
La această întrebare răspunsul corect era varianta „c”, adică 35 de lei. Peste
68% din participanţi au răspuns corect. Interesant este că numai 1,7% au considerat
că aspiratorul ar putea fi mai ieftin, adică au ales varianta „d”, cu 31 de lei, restul
subiecţilor care nu au reţinut preţul considerând a priori că acesta valorează mai
mult (au ales variantele „a = 40 lei” sau „b = 51 lei”). Tabelul 2 ilustrează aceste
date.
19
Tabelul 2. Cât costă aspiratorul pentru tastatură?
ÎNTREBAREA 2: CE ACCESORIU NU ARE CRAVATA SPION ?
Răspunsul bun era varianta „d = ac de cravată” şi a fost dat de 45 dintre cei
60 de subiecţi, ceea ce reprezintă un procent de 75% răspunsuri corecte. Celelalte
răspunsuri, „a = cablu” USB, „b = baterie” şi „c = încărcător”, au avut frecvenţe
mult mai mici, conform Tabelului 6.
Tabelul 3. Ce accesoriu NU are cravata spion?
Accesoriu Frecvența Procent Procent cumulat
cablu USB 5 8.3 8.3 baterie 3 5.0 13.3
incarcator 7 11.7 25.0
ac de cravata 45 75.0 100.0 Total 60 100.0
ÎNTREBAREA 3: PENTRU CÂTE MĂRIMI SUNT LANŢURILE DE
PANTOFI?
Răspunsul corect era varianta „b = două mărimi” şi a fost ales de 29 dintre
participanţi. Celelalte variante, „a = mărime universală”, „c = trei mărimi” şi „d =
la comandă”, au înregistrat scoruri destul de mari, cuprinse între aproape 12% şi
25%, după cum se poate vedea şi din Tabelul 4.
Tabelul 4. Pentru câte mărimi sunt lanţurile de pantofi?
Mărimi Frecvența Procent Procent cumulat
universală 15 25.0 25.0
doua marimi 29 48.3 73.3 trei marimi 7 11.7 85.0
la comandă 9 15.0 100.0
Total 60 100.0
Preț Frecvența Procent Procent cumulat
40 lei 7 11.7 11.7 51 lei 11 18.3 30.0
35 lei 41 68.3 98.3
31 lei 1 1.7 100.0 Total 60 100.0
20
ÎNTREBAREA 4: CÂT COSTĂ MĂNUŞILE POLARE?
Răspunsul corect, adică varianta „a = 58 lei”, a fost ales de numai 17 dintre
cei 60 de participanţi, cel mai „popular” răspuns fiind varianta greşită „b= 48 lei”,
pentru care au optat 21 de subiecţi. Celelalte două răspunsuri, „c= 51 lei” şi „d= 41
lei” au înregistrat scoruri apropiate între ele, de 10% şi, respectiv, 12%. Valorile
din Tabelul 5.
Tabelul 5. Cât costă mănuşile polare?
Mărimi Frecvența Procent Procent cumulat
58 lei 17 28.3 28.3 48 lei 21 35.0 63.3
51 lei 10 16.7 80.0
41 lei 12 20.0 100.0 Total 60 100.0
ÎNTREBAREA 5: CÂTE PRODUSE MERITĂ SĂ FIE CUMPĂRATE?
La această întrebare nu există răspuns corect, ea nefiind o întrebare de
verificare a atenţiei sau interesului cu care subiecţii au vizionat slide-urile. Cele
patru variante de răspuns erau: „a = niciunul” ; „b= două-trei”; „c= cinci-şase”; „d
= toate”, iar răspunsul preferat a fost varianta „b”, în proporţie de 75%, după cum
se vede şi în Tabelul 6.
Tabelul 6. Câte produse merită să fie cumpărate?
Nr. produse Frecvența Procent Procent cumulat
niciunul 4 6.7 6.7 doua-trei 45 75.0 81.7 cinci-sase 4 6.7 88.3 toate 7 11.7 100.0
Total 60 100.0
ÎNTREBAREA 6: CÂTE RAFTURI ARE CEASUL SEIF ?
Varianta de răspuns corectă era „c = trei” şi a fost aleasă de 37 dintre cei 60
de participanţi adica de 61.7%. Restul au optat în general pentru varianta „b =
două”, doar foarte puţini alegând variantele „a = unul” sau „d = patru”. În Tabelul
7 se pot vedea toate răspunsurile.
21
Tabelul 7. Câte rafturi are ceasul seif?
Nr. rafturi Frecvența Procent Procent cumulat
unu 4 6.7 6.7
doua 14 23.3 30.0
trei 37 61.7 91.7 patru 5 8.3 100.0
Total 60 100.0
ÎNTREBAREA 7: CÂT COSTĂ UMERAŞUL MULTIPLU?
La această întrebare răspunsul corect era varianta „b = 39 lei” şi a fost aleasă
de 27 dintre participanţi adica de 47%. Restul variantelor, „a = 31 lei”, „c = 41 lei”
şi „d = 49 lei”, au înregistrat frecvenţe mai mici. În Tabelul 8 se regăsesc
frecvenţele pentru fiecare răspuns.
Tabelul 8. Cât costă umeraşul multiplu?
Preț Frecvența Procent Procent cumulat
31 lei 17 28.3 28.3
39 lei 27 45.0 73.3 41 lei 11 18.3 91.7
49 lei 5 8.3 100.0
Total 60 100.0
ÎNTREBAREA 8: CE CAPACITATE ARE TERMOSUL CU ROBINET ?
Varianta de răspuns „d = 6 litri” a fost aleasă de 33 dintre participanţi şi alţi
15 participanţi au optat pentru varianta „c = 5 litri”. Celelalte două variante de
răspuns, respectiv „a = 3 litri” şi „b = 4 litri” au întrunit mult mai puţine alegeri,
după cum se poate vedea şi din Tabelul 9.
Tabelul 9. Ce capacitate are termosul cu robinet?
Cantitate Frecvența Procent Procent cumulat
trei litri 7 11.7 11.7 patru litri 5 8.3 20.0
cinci litri 15 25.0 45.0
sase litri 33 55.0 100.0 Total 60 100.0
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5. CONCLUZII ŞI DIRECŢII VIITOARE
Internetul şi muzica ocupă împreună cea mai mare parte a timpului liber de
care dispune azi generaţia tânără. De altfel, parcă tocmai pentru a ilustra această
constatare, la începutul anilor ’90, când internetul abia începea să cucerească
lumea, cele mai multe site-uri erau concepute să difuzeze, simultan cu informaţiile
dorite, şi muzică ambientală. Totuşi, încet – încet numărul acestora s-a restrâns,
astfel încât astăzi un website cu muzică este extrem de rar întâlnit. Asta deşi cei
mai mulţi internauţi ascultă totuşi muzică în timp ce navighează pe net. Procedura
la modă se bazează însă pe accesarea a două sau chiar mai multe site-uri simultan,
dintre care unul este cel cu muzica preferată. Şi, pentru că fiecare poate asculta
gratis exact ce-i place, site-urile comerciale au încetat să mai folosească o muzică
proprie pentru ambianţă. Motivele „divorţului” dintre aşa-numitul e-Commerce
(comerţ on-line) şi muzică au fost multiple, dar cele mai multe au venit dinspre
latura tehnică a acestui fost „mariaj”.
Ca atare, acest studiu privind importanţa muzicii în proiectarea mediului
digital comercial este necesar, măcar sub forma unei analize preliminarii care să
puncteze validitatea unor ipoteze de lucru şi să ajute la stabilirea unor variabile
potrivite pentru cercetările viitoare.
Rezultatul certificat statistic al studiilor efectuate în urma construirii acestui
chestionar, şi anume faptul că muzica lentă îi determină pe internauţi să petreacă
mai mult timp citind reclamele, poate prin el însuşi să producă schimbări, atât în
modul de prezentare al reclamelor căt şi a detaliilor şi specificaţiilor produselor în
legatura cu preţul (Chraif, Tudor, & Anitei, 2012; 2013). Astfel, aceste două
cercetări evidenţiază faptul că muzica are, într-adevăr puterea de a determina
subiecţii să petreacă mai mult timp în magazin, iar muzica lentă pare a fi mai
eficientă în acest sens.
Totuşi, prima şi cea mai importantă observaţie ar fi că această cercetare
trebuie să fie completată folosind un număr considerabil mai mare de subiecţi, care
să includă şi persoane adulte sau de vârsta a treia, precum şi un chestionar a cărui
validitate de construct şi de criteriu să fie indubitabile, pentru a obţine mai multe
rezultate statistic semnificative, la fiecare dintre ipotezele de lucru.
Faptul că muzica ambientală este benefică magazinelor virtuale, în sensul că îi
determină pe clienţi să petreacă mai mult timp vizionând reclamele, este un prim
pas pozitiv, dar sunt necesare studii suplimentare pentru stabilirea genurilor de
muzică ce influenţează pozitiv clienţii, astfel încât arhitecţii site-urilor să ştie exact
ce muzică trebuie să folosească. Acest aspect ar putea fi testat separat, pentru a se
putea folosi mai multe melodii şi mai multe genuri muzicale, astfel încât rezultatele
selecţiei să fie statistic reprezentative prin toate metodele statistice şi pentru toţi
utilizatorii de internet, nu doar pentru tinerii studenţi.
23
Experimentele desfăşurate în magazine reale au arătat că toţi clienţii care
petrec mai mult timp în magazin cumpără mai multe produse iar muzica lentă
difuzată la un volum redus îi determină pe cei mai mulţi clienţi să stea mai mult
timp în magazin (Milliman, 1982; 1986). Şi în cazul concret analizat de acest
studiu, cel al comerţului on-line, s-au obţinut rezultate similare, ceea ce arată că
experimentul poate fi considerat drept o confirmare pentru studiile întreprinse în
mediul real.
Şi în ceea ce priveşte timpul de testare se pot face unele îmbunătăţiri. Acest
studiu a presupus vizionarea unui powerpoint care cuprindea numai 8 slide-uri cu
texte promoţionale şi fotografii ale unor produse reale. Cum textele magazinului
on-line erau reduse, timpul total de vizionare a slide-urilor a fost şi el redus. Astfel,
studenţii testaţi au petrecut în total între 57 şi 283 de secunde în faţa computerului,
ceea ce este totuşi destul de puţin, adică sub cinci minute. Pentru o mai mare
relevanţă a influenţei fondului muzical timpul total de vizionare ar trebui să ajungă
la 10-12 minute, iar acest lucru se poate obţine prin mărirea numărului de slide-uri
şi crearea unor texte promoţionale echilibrat de lungi şi de complicate pentru
fiecare slide.
Un chestionar cu mai mulţi itemi, testat în prelalabil pe un grup separat de
cercetare, pentru a i se verifica validitatea de construct şi de criteriu, care să
cuprindă mai mulţi itemi pentru fiecare slide ar fi oferit, probabil, rezultate
semnificative şi din punct de vedere statistic.
Un alt neajuns al acestui test a fost poate numărul mic de produse prezentate
în slide-uri, precum şi lungimea neuniformă a textelor promoţionale, care a
influenţat timpul de analiză al fiecărui produs într-un mod care nu a putut fi
cuantificat sau prelucrat statistic. Pentru o eventuală retestare viitoare slide-urile
din powerpoint ar trebui să fie nu doar mai multe, ci şi mai echilibrat alcătuite,
astfel încât textele să cuprindă pentru fiecare produs măcar trei-patru informaţii cu
grade de dificultate diferite (legate de caracteristicile tehnice, aspect general, gamă
de culori sau preţ), astfel încât comparaţiile ulterioare între răspunsurile obţinute la
chestionar să fie semnificative şi din punct de vedere statistic.
Received at: 05.01. 2012, Accepted for publication on: 09.02.2012
6. REFERECES
Cătoiu, I. (1997). Comportamentul consumatorului. Bucureşti: Editura Economică.
Chraif, M., Tudor, C.C. & Anitei, M. (2012). Diferenţe de gen și ritm muzical în studiul
timpului acordat pentru procesarea vizuală a prezentării unor produse comerciale de tip
„gadget”. In Proceeding of the sixth International Conference, Titu Maiorescu University
Chraif, M., Tudor, C.C. & Anitei, M. (in press). Musical rhythms influence in
consumer buyer behavior of retail gadget products. Procedia Behavioral Sciences.
24
Guéguen, N. (2004). Psychologie de la manipulation et de la soumission. Paris:Editura
Dunod.
Iliescu, D., & Petre, D. (2010). Psihologia reclamei şi a consumatorului. Bucureşti:
Editura Comunicare.ro.
Milliman, R. E. (1982). Using Background Music to Affect the Behavior of
Supermarket Shoppers. Journal of Marketing. http://www.jstor.org/pss/1251706, accesat la
4.03.2012.
Milliman, R. E. (1986). The Influence of Background on the Behaviour of Restaurant
Patrons. Journal of marketing. http://www.jstor.org/pss/2489234, accesat la 4.03.2012.
Mehrabian, A., & Russell, J. (1974). An Approach to environmental psychology.
Cambridge: MIT Press.
ANEXĂ: Chestionar Consumator produse tip gadget on-line (CPTG, 2012)
Item Variante de răspuns
1. Cât costă aspiratorul pentru tastatură? a.40 lei; b. 51 lei; c. 35 lei; d.31 lei.
2. Ce accesoriu NU are cravata spion? a.cablu USB; b. baterie; c. încărcător; d. ac de cravată.
3. Pentru câte mărimi sunt lanţurile de
pantofi?
a.mărime universală; b. două mărimi; c. trei mărimi; d. la
comandă
4. Cât costă mănuşile polare? a.58 lei; b. 48 lei; c. 51 lei; d. 41 lei.
5. Câte produse merită să fie cumpărate? a.niciunul; b. două-trei; c. cinci-şase; d. toate.
6. Câte rafturi are ceasul seif ? a.unul; b. două; c. trei; d. patru.
7. Cât costă umeraşul multiplu? a.31 lei; b. 39 lei; c. 41 lei; d. 49 lei
8. Ce capacitate are termosul cu robinet? a.3 litri; b. 4 litri; c. 5 litri; d. 6 litri.
REZUMAT
Obiectivul cercetării de faţă este explorarea unei posibile legături între muzica ambientală şi comportamentul clienţilor în magazinele virtuale şi a fost sugerat de necesitatea obţinerii unor răspunsuri la cel
puţin două întrebări care apar atunci când vorbim de interacţiunea dintre muzică şi comerţul on-line. O prima
întrebare urmărește influența pe care folosirea unui fundal sonor muzical o are asupra deciziei de cumpărare a vizitatorilor unui site comercial. O altă întrebare se referă la este muzica ambientală cea mai potrivită pentru un
magazin virtual. La acest studiu au participat în calitate de subiecţi 60 de studenţi ai Facultăţii de Psihologie şi
Ştiinţele Educaţiei din Universitatea Bucureşti. Testarea s-a desfăşurat în Laboratorul Zapan al Facultăţii de Psihologie şi Ştiinţele Educaţiei.. Fiecare subiect a fost testat individual, aşezat în faţa unui computer, iar muzica
audiată a fost generată de un MP3 Player, fiind difuzată într-o pereche de căşti stereo. A fost folosit un chestionar
alcătuit din 8 întrebări, dintre care numai șapte au fost legate direct de slide-uri, ordinea întrebărilor nefiind aceeaşi cu ordinea apariţiei reclamelor din power-point. Scopul chestionarului a fost acela de a verifica în ce măsură
muzica a influenţat cantitatea de informaţii corecte reţinute de participanţii la testare. Rezultatele au arătat un
procent de recunoaștere corectă diferit pentru fiecare item care corespundea unui produs diferit. De exemplu,
numai 47% dintre respondenți au răspuns corect la întrebarea a șaptea, în timp ce 68% au răspuns corect la prima
întrebare.
25
BRAND PARAMETERS IN ROMANIAN FINANCIAL-BANKING
INSTITUTIONS
ALINA MUSCALU University of Bucharest, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences,
Department of Doctoral School
Abstract
”Brand is that product, service, organization, person who transmits a feeling of
contentment and satisfaction for which the consumer does not find substitute" and could "
appeal to emotional resorts which are outlined in everyone's mind, influencing positive or
negative any decision at any level " (Cărămidă, 2010, p.58). According to Landor Lexicon,
the brand is "the sum of all tangible and intangible characteristics that can individualize an
offer and make it unique" (Anholt, 2005, p.116).
"The brand is developed as an answer to the identity of the needs of
consumers”(Winram, 1987, p.23), offering "a unique set of values and attributes (tangible
and intangible) that consumers could assimilate and who could arouse interest” (Murphy,
1987, p.3), ”creating significance and identification” (de Mooij și Hofstede, 2002, p. 64).
The brand is seen as ” a set of rational and emotional associations ... is a symbol, an
abstract structure able to generate lifestyles, consumer habits and communities who share
the same ideas. Brand is a social aggregator and is completely different than the product"
(Barbu, 2011, p.42). The brand is "an important asset, a significant competitive advantage
for which must be adopted that strategy that ensure development and valorization more
efficient" (Frone, 1999, p.18).
Therefore, we made a research whose main objective was aimed ” highlighting the
main characteristics of the institutional brand reported to the financial and banking
institutions for identifying market risks” whose hypothesis was ” is presumed that due to
specific work activity in financial - banking institutions will record specific notes of the
objectivity of institutional brand in relation to staff characteristics”.
The research was conducted on a total of 221 professionals working in finance. In
this research we have used a range of research methods: documentation method,
investigations method using Brand Questionnaire - built by me in 2012 and which is based
on an analysis model by identifying two poles: the institution - as a legal entity with
cultural and social values and the employee - with educational baggage, with regional
specificity of ethical and social values, systemic observation method and statistical
processing methods.
The research highlighted a number of specific elements regarding institutional brand
reflected in the financial - banking institutions in Romania.
Keywords: institutional brand, personal brand, organizational psychology.
26
1. INTRODUCTION
Brand issues, intensively studied, exceeded the boundaries of traditional
marketing, penetrating social and human sciences, with an emphasis on resource
quality involved in social valuation. Brand can be defined as a contract, an
engagement, a promise, a commitment, which is characterized by quality,
reliability, differentiation and satisfaction, and by raised values, culture and
personality. Brand is what one wants to convey, what is transmitted , what is
projected in the minds of others. Brand becomes a mark, a symbol, a "reflection".
S. Anholt defines brand in three ways: refers to all modern methods of sale
(popular method), refers to the way in which the identity of a company, product or
service is defined and recognized (easy method), refers primarily to people,
purpose and reputation, and never to money (advanced method) (2005, p.116).
"A brand is developed in response to consumer demand identification"
(Winram 1987, p.23), providing "a unique set of values and attributes (tangible and
intangible) that consumers assimilate and arouse interest" (Murphy, 1987, p.3),
"creating meaning and identity" (by Mooij și Hofstede, 2002, p. 64
S. Anholt defines brand in three ways: refers to all modern methods of sale
(popular method), refers to the way in which the identity of a company, product or
service is defined and recognized (easy method), refers primarily to people,
purpose and reputation, and never to money (advanced method) (2005, p.116).
The road to a successful brand requires a unique discernment of offered
values , followed by vision, patience and perseverance. Combining these features
with the method of execution, large organizations can exit mediocrity. The way
from obscurity to providing reliable products and services follows a disciplined
process The Branding Triad or the ABC of Branding: Attribute (attributes),
behavior (Behavior) and circumstances (Circumstances) (Nissim, 2007).
"There is a double view on brand: brand reality (as it is perceived by
consumers, as it is seen in people's minds) and brand vision (as the company wants
to be perceived). Of course in employer branding this duality is a touchstone
because employees are faced every day with this difference.
To what has been said before, the imperative past of the company is added.
Brands are changing because the world is changing. But at the same time a brand
has a history. In this case, although difficult, it is important to be creative and keep
the continuity of the brand, integrating coherently the past and the future.
"(Ionescu, 2008, p 53).
27
2. OBJECTIVE AND HYPOTHESIS
2.1. OBJECTIVE
Given the theoretical considerations presented in a summative manner, I
thought to elaborate a work whose general objective is aimed at "highlighting the
main features of the institutional brand reported to financial and banking
institutions so as to identify market risks".
3. METHOD
3.1. PARTICIPANTS
Analyzing specialty literature and considering the overall objective of this
research we formulated the following hypothesis "it is presumed due to specific
work activities of financial institutions - banks will record specific notes of
institutional brand objectification in relation to staff characteristics".
In order to achieve the objectives of this work, research group consisted of
221 subjects working in financial institutions - banks in Romania. Of these, 162
women and 59 men, with a representation of 73.3%% and 26.7% (see Figure 1).
Figura nr.1. – Bach variation of subjects in relation to sex
We attempted to spread the sample as homogeneous both in terms of age and
of experience (both in terms of total experience in employment and in terms of
experience in current job). We selected subjects aged between 21 and 47 years
(with an average of 28.5204 years, median 27 years) with professional experience
ranging from 6 months to 28 years (with an average of 6.9630 years, a median of
28
5.3333 years) and professional experience to current job from 6 months to 11 years
(with an average of 2.8005 years, median 3 years).
3.2. INSTRUMENTS
The following research methods were used: documentation of actual
investigation, for which Brand questionnaire was applied- proposes an analysis
model by identifying two poles: the institution - as a legal entity with cultural
values - social worker - with education baggage available, with specific regional
ethical and social values (Cronbach Alpha internal consistency coefficient is .838
and test-retest stability coefficient is .773), systemic observation method and
statistical processing methods.
4. RESULTS
Brand factor analysis was performed globally by two factors identified by us,
namely institutional generic brand coefficient and institutional brand coefficient
related to employee.
We found that between the two brand coefficients investigated there are
differentiating notes. First, overall value between the two investigated coefficients
is smaller on the institutional brand coefficient level related to employee than the
generic institutional brand ratio.
This situation primarily means that institutional brand related to employee, is
perceived by the employee in relation to the actual time that has past since
activation within the organization on one hand, and on the other hand, it is a
sublimation of institutional brand components related to the employee, meaning
that the employee feels generic institutional brand as a normal state which
distinguishes it from other professionals categories. All these factors combined to
the leveling level make different variations of interpretation reported to parameters.
We also found that institutional generic brand leveling level is felt in a
significant percentage. This means that generic brand manifesto in the market to
customers (beneficiaries of services and products offered by the bank) exerts
effects in the sense that before being hired by the banking financial organization,
the employee is regarded as a potential customer.
As such, brand perception exists essentially in terms of the benefits you get as
a customer. Beyond that, institutional generic brand perception is enhanced by
advertising campaigns, statistics and quotations of financial banking organisms in
relation to performance criteria (profit, turnover). Under these conditions the
elements that shape a financial institution employee's job description are less
relevant than performance (constant yield) that all employees currently have.
29
Brand coefficients variation in the batch of subjects investigated is shown in
Figure 2.
0%5%
10%15%20%25%30%35%40%45%
Nivelul foarte
scăzut
Nivelul scăzut
Nivelul mediu
Nivelul ridicat
Nivelul foarte ridicat
Fre
cve
nța
pe
r n
ivel
Coeficienții de brand instituțional per nivel nivelar
Coeficientul de brand instituțional generic
Coeficientulde brandinstituționalraportat laangajat
Figura nr.2. Brand distribution coefficients per level of intensity
In contrast, the coefficient of institutional brand reported to employee,
presented in a little percentage on higher levels, reveals the differentiation of
benefits obtained by the employee through constant fine discrimination, through
assessment strategies specific to internal parameters outlining organizational
effectiveness. These internal parameters have a greater flexibility and dynamics in
relation to a number of conditions / dominants of professional field and lead to a
less specific internalization of the meaning assigned to the brand.
For this reason, the coefficient of institutional brand related to employee is
more the expression of reporting institutional brand generic to current, constant /
professional needs; the size of services effects offered to employee by management
that does not have built-in job specific tasks. In other words, we are talking about
the internalization of institutional generic brand significance in relation to different
levels of tasks and rules of direct relevance in the market, according to the global
context of manifestation of the professional field.
A more subtle analysis of the values obtained from the coefficients brand was
made in relation to age, total work experience, years in current organization, sex
and occupied positions.
In subjects aged 18-40 years working in banking and financial institutions
there is a confusion between institutional brand and organization of origin
typology, and information dynamic, and especially the needs of the group, which
means that in this case the generic institutional brand coefficient works as a social
label. This label works bilateral allowing on one hand to identify belonging
members, and on the other hand their differentiation within the professional field. \
As the maturation process of emotional and developmental functions was
achieved, the brand experienced a greater impact (share of meaning towards higher
30
levels), a situation which means interest accumulating in all tasks and effort to
achieve them by each employee.
The situation can be explained by the fact that with age, criteria behind some
actions, skills are no longer valued as relevant to current activity in the workplace
and institutional membership is objectified through a series of stereotypes modeled
socio-culturally (a constant approach, a stereotype which solves a specific request
from employees accessing the organizational hierarchy), all of which not being a
challenge except to the extent in which coexistence rules change in the banking and
financial organization.
It (the banking system) is a system in which change regarding organizational
behavior is reduced, the rules are very stable, which leads to institutional brand per
employee to be felt at the lower levels.
Institutional brand generic coefficient dose not behave according to the total
period of employment a long-term significance given to generic brand, but also
requires openness to change, how the subject / subjects react.
Brand coefficient related to the employee manifests differently in relation to
the period of time spent in the current organization, so for those with less than 1
year old, it has low and very low significance in that size really does not realize the
implications of membership to certain banking institution and limited to specific
performance action-relational dictated by the job (duties described in the job
description). Highest relevance of institutional brand coefficient reported to
employees was record in subjects working for at least 3-5 years in the current
organization.
As the current job experience increases (especially when it comes to those
working in the same organization for more than 10 years) we see closeness in
meaning and value between two factors (institutional brand and generic
institutional brand reported to employee), so we can speak of a fundamental
institutional brand.
Institutional generic brand is experienced more intensely by women than men,
which is explained by the fact that women live the formal group membership
experience more intensely and internalize more dynamic the professional and
occupational status membership than men.
Related to the institutional brand reported to each employee it is observed that
women feel more intense, internalizing better the operating organizations policies,
resulting conflicts from the interaction of tasks listed in the job description and
internal rules on one hand, and on the other hand the organization hierarchy.
5. CONCLUSIONS
These findings allow us to state that the research objective has been achieved
and the hypothesis confirmed.
31
6. REFERENCES
Anholt, S. (2005). Some important distinctions in place branding. Place Branding.
vol.1., no.2, Henry Steward Publications, p.116- 121.
Barbu, O. (2011). Publicitatea ca formă a comunicării. Arad: Editura Concordia.
Cărămidă, C. (2009). Brand & Branding. Volumul I - Identitate vizuală. Bucureşti:
Editura Brandmark.
De Mooij, M.; Hofstede, G. (2002). Convergence and divergence in consumer
behavior: implications for international retailing. Journal of Retailing, No.78.p.61-69.
Frone, F.D. (1999). Dicţionar de marketing. Bucureşti: Editura Oscar Print.
Ionescu, M.A. (2008). Brandingul de angajator. Iaşi: Editura Institutul European.
Murphy, J. (1987). What is Branding?. XXX Branding: a Key Marketing Tool, New
York, McGraw – Hill Book Company.
Winram, S. (1984). The opportunity for world brands.International Journal for
Advertising, 3(1), p.17-26.
7. SUMMARY
”Brand is that product, service, organization, person who transmits a feeling of contentment and satisfaction for
which the consumer does not find substitute" and could " appeal to emotional resorts which are outlined in everyone's mind, influencing positive or negative any decision at any level " (Cărămidă, 2010, p.58). According to
Landor Lexicon, the brand is "the sum of all tangible and intangible characteristics that can individualize an offer
and make it unique" (Anholt, 2005, p.116). "The brand is developed as an answer to the identify of the needs of consumers”(Winram, 1987, p.23), offering "a
unique set of values and attributes (tangible and intangible) that consumers could assimilate and who could arouse
interest” (Murphy, 1987, p.3), ”creating significance and identification” (de Mooij și Hofstede, 2002, p. 64). The brand is seen as ” a set of rational and emotional associations ... is a symbol, an abstract structure able to generate
lifestyles, consumer habits and communities who share the same ideas. Brand is a social aggregator and is
completely different than the product" (Barbu, 2011, p.42). The brand is "an important asset, a significant competitive advantage for which must be adopted that strategy that ensure development and valorisation more
efficient" (Frone, 1999, p.18).
Therefore, we made a research whose main objective was aimed ” highlighting the main characteristics of the institutional brand reported to the financial and banking institutions for identifying market risks” whose hypothesis
was ” is presumed that due to specific work activity in financial - banking institutions will record specific notes of the objectivity of institutional brand in relation to staff characteristics”.
The research was conducted on a total of 221 professionals working in finance. In this research we have used a
range of research methods: documentation method, investigations method using Brand Questionnaire - built by me in 2012 and which is based on an analysis model by identifying two poles: the institution - as a legal entity with
cultural and social values and the employee - with educational baggage, with regional specificity of ethical and
social values, systemic observation method and statistical processing methods. The research highlighted a number of specific elements regarding institutional brand reflected in the financial -
banking institutions in Romania.
32
THE CONCEPT OF SUBCONSCIOUS – A THEORETICAL
EVOLUTION SYNTHESIS
ANDRA CRĂCIUN
University of Bucharest, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences,
Department of Psychology
Abstract
The psyche is known to have a complex and contradictious structure. The process that
leads to delimiting these defining notes of the psyche consists of reporting it to an external
criterion to emphasize its own identity. Wallon was the one who, in 1924, contributed to
launching a new conception on the subconscious. He tried to discover the representation
ways of the subconscious states, because accepting the primary idea, according to which
the reproduce conscious states leads to idea of considering it the only expression of the
psyche. Freud defined the subconscious as a descriptive form of the unconscious. The
subconscious took two main steps to be defined and to be discovered in its every dimension.
Thus, in the first step, it was considered to be a form of the unconscious, a simple latent
container of what once was conscious and might be once “activated”. The subconscious,
controversy instance of our psyche, is remarked through multiple aspects, from its
intermediary position between the unconscious and consciousness to its own qualities and
derived functions of this position. In time the conclusion was reached that these
conceptions could be inconsistent, so the subconscious was given a new status, of psyche
state that disposes of its own processes and even creative qualities.
Keywords: Subconscious, psychoanalysis, psychological states, psyche state.
1. THEORETHICAL FRAMEWORK
The psyche is known to have a complex and contradictious structure. The
process that leads to delimiting these defining notes of the psyche consists of
reporting it to an external criterion to emphasise its own identity. Thus, the psyche
can the characterised as “an expression of the relational life, phenomena which is
inseparably connected to material structures, a subjective replication of the
33
objective world, a product of conditionals and social, historical and cultural
factors” (Zlate, 2007).
The psyche manifests in various ways. It has its moments of clear, lucid
activity, and other when it manifests in an obscure way. The source of these
manifestations is found in the three stated of our psyche structure – conscious,
subconscious and unconscious.
The conscious is the first state of subjective and active integration of all forms
of the psyche life which allows the individual’s report to the environment, the
subconscious keeps a memory of all the actions that once had been conscious but in
present lack the usual control. The unconscious level represents a basic level,
source and influence for the psyche.
The subconscious can also be met under other names such as pre-
consciousness or post-consciousness. In the “Grand dictionary of psychology” it is
defined as “an assembly of psychological states that the subject is not aware about
the influence of his behaviour”. Even if some authors don’t agree and this notion or
claim that the subconscious usually tends to merge with the unconscious, it is kept,
under a definition or another and is commonly used in psychology. Because the
subconscious presents such a customised content and also specific mechanisms and
goals, its identity cannot be ignored or reduced to being equalled to other
psychological states.
Understanding the concept of subconscious took several steps itself. In the
first phase, most of the authors accepted the subconscious as a psyche level that
contains actions that once were conscious but at the present time they lack the
conscious control. Here, all the memories, motor stereotypes, abilities,
compulsions, stereotypes ideas are kept, with other words, all the actions that once
were consumed and in the present are steady, having the possibility to become
active once again, passing to a conscious level.
Freud (2003) used the term of “subconscious” in his first writings but then he
abandoned it to avoid confusion. “When someone speaks about the subconscious, I
can’t tell if they understand it as a topic: something that we find deep in the soul
under the consciousness – or in its quantity meaning: a different consciousness,
sort to say, an underground one (Lapache &Pontalis, 1994).
He explains the subconscious as any other phenomena that can switch the
unconscious state to the conscious one. Also, any process which is usually
conscious, no matter how complicated it might be, can remain subconscious.
Separating these two states of the psyche is cannot be done in a permanent matter –
preconscious elements become conscious without us making an effort, and the
unconscious can become conscious through a process of overcoming resistances.
At the same time, the preconscious content can sometimes become unreachable,
blocked by resistances (like temporary forgetfulness), or in the case of humour,
when such a thought can be commuted to the unconscious. These transformations
34
can take place spontaneously or with man’s contribution. At that time it was
admitted that the subconscious was closer as a state to the conscious.
Also, Freud (2004) defined the subconscious as a descriptive form of the
unconscious, saving the former one to describe the meaning of slumping, a
dynamic structure. He sustained the idea that using the three terms to describe the
psyche states don’t rise any trouble unless we take in account the idea that
descriptively there are two types of unconscious. In several processes he did not
considered to be important any distinction between the unconscious and
subconscious while in other cases this distinction became essential. Thus, admitting
that though a double sense of the unconscious did not bring any benefit, it cannot
be ignored.
The idea of separating pre-conscious thoughts from the subconscious once
had been abandoned from the classifications domain, the result being an image of
functional and dynamic relations of the psychological activity. Thus it has been
discovered that an active preconscious level that easily passed to consciousness and
an active unconscious, separated from it.
The difference between a presentation or an unconscious idea and a
preconscious one consists of reporting the first one to an unknown material, while
the second one was associated to a verbal representation. This is the first attempt to
characterise the first two hypotheses in a different matter than by reporting them to
consciousness. Another aspect could have become subconscious by associating it
to verbal corresponding representations. These represent remains from the
memory, old perceptions that might become conscious – thus, nothing can become
conscious unless it once passed the level of concrete perception.
Henri Wallon was the one who, in 1924, contributed to launching a new
conception on the subconscious. He tried to discover the representation ways of the
subconscious states, because accepting the primary idea, according to which the
reproduce conscious states leads to idea of considering it the only expression of the
psyche. Wallon considered this conception to be superficial. He succeeded in
separating the subconscious both from the unconscious and the conscious levels by
offering it a self-standing position. Thus, the subconscious states modify, being
connected to relations of cause-effect and influencing each other. Wallon defined
the subconscious as “latent brain work” under “the apparent simplicity of
perception” (1982).
The characteristics of the subconscious result from its position as a
connection between the conscious and subconscious. Its latency and potentiality
assume keeping the content in a latent state until the moment they will be
reactivated and used by the consciousness. The subconscious can also be
characterised by its co-existence with the consciousness – most of the time, it
represents an alternative expression, more condense, as the two states permanently
coexist. Also, the preconscious can be seen as a “servant” of the consciousness.
35
Their content passing from a level to another are filtered and mediated by the
subconscious – they don’t pass directly to it (Zlate, 2007).
Paul Popescu Neveanu (1976) resumed these features discussing the
“proximity of the subconscious to the consciousness” and their compatibility.
There are many similarities between them than between the conscious-unconscious
pair. Thus, the latter state is viewed as an information and operation contained that
sometimes constitutes the source of the conscious facts. This idea is met in the
work of other authors too: “The subconscious contains what is out of the
attention’s focus, but can affect the consciousness”. To avoid returning to the first
step of defining, that claimed that the preconscious is a simple container, it was
proven that is benefits from its own mechanisms. Aside from conservation it is
capable of independent processing, restricting and creation. The obtained material
is not identical to those initially introduced in the subconscious. Several factors,
such as time, emotions, distraction lead to this material modification of the
subconscious, because of the new relations it involves in. A creative function of the
subconscious is also mentioned: “The dynamics of the subconscious life is
spontaneously organised based on a schema of data spread through the psyche,
mixing them into a new structure (Biberi, 1970, p. 58).
Over time, two directions were faced when approaching the psychological
states. Whether accepting Freud’s conception of the three main levels which we’ve
already mentioned or trying to figure out if that’s really how we should view the
structure of our minds (Freud, 2003, 2004). Believing only in the conscious level
has its consequences – it’s like stating that we don’t evolve at all since the first
months of our lives, when our mind only functions based on concrete information
we come in contact with. The idea is sustained that the subconscious starts to
function when the baby starts to feel the need of naming objects. It seems that this
state finds its foundation in the reaction of people around the baby; he tries to
correctly name each object because he know that this way he will trigger positive
and encouraging reactions. Therefore, the subconscious is a container of both
concreter information and its meaning. Another important function is that the
subconscious develops defence mechanisms, as all of the psychological harm is
produced on a conscious level.
The subconscious, controversy instance of our psyche, is remarked through
multiple aspects, from its intermediary position between the unconscious and
consciousness to its own qualities and derived functions of this position. Despite
the discussions generated through time, its importance cannot be neglected.
36
2. REFERECES
Biberi, I. (1970). Arta de a trǎi. Bucureşti: Editura Enciclopedicǎ Românǎ
Freud, S. (2005). Compendiu de psihanaliză. Bucureşti: Editura Trei.
Freud, S. (2004). Psihologia inconştientului. Bucureşti: Editura Trei.
Laplanche, J., & Pontalis, J.-B. (1994). Vocabularul psihanalizei. Bucureşti: Editura
Humanitas.
Neveanu, P.-P. (1976). Curs de psihologie generală. Bucureşti: Tipografia Universitǎţii
Bucureşti.
Wallon, H. (1982). La Vie mentale. Paris : Éd. Sociales.
Zlate, M. (2007). Introducere în psihologie. Iaşi: Editura Polirom.
3. REZUMAT
Psihicul este cunoscut ca având o structură complexă și contradictorie. Procesul care conduce spre
delimitarea acesor note definitorii ale psihicului constă în raportarea sa la criterii externe pentru a-i evidenția
identitatea. Henri Wallon este cel care a lansat noul concept de subconștient în anul 1924. Acesta a încercat să descopere modalitățile de reprezentare ale stărilor subconștiente pentru că acceptarea ideii primare conform căreia
stările de conștiință reproduce conduce spre ideea conisderării lor ca singura formă de existență a psihicului. Sigmund Freud definea subconștientul ca fiind o formă descriptivă a inconștientului. Subconștientul a făcut doi
pași importanți spre definirea sa și spre identificarea sa în fiecare dimensiune. Astfel, în prima etapă, a fost
considerat o formă a inconștientului, un container latent a ceea ce a fost cândva conștient și care ar putea fi activat la un moment dat. Subconștientul, instant controversată a psihicului, se remarcă prin multiple aspect, de la poziția
sa intermediară înte inconștient și conștient, până la calitățile sale și funcțiile derivate din această poziție. Pe
parcursul timpului, s-a ajuns la concluzia că aceste concepții sunt inconsistente, astfel subconștientului i-a fost acordat un nou statut, de instant a psihicului care dispune de propriile procese și chiar de propriile calități creative.
37
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TEACHER - STUDENT
COMMUNICATION AND THE CRITICAL THINKING
ABILITIES OF THE STUDENTS FROM A ROMANIAN
FACULTY OF PSYCHOLOGY
MARIANA – SIMONA COCOSILA
Arges County Police Inspectorate/Human Resources Department
LUCICA SERBAN
Olt County Police Inspectorate/Human Resources Department
CRENGUTA OPREA
University of Pitesti, Psychology Department
ANDREEA STAN1
University of Pitesti, Psychology Department
Abstract Development of the critical thinking is a priority in modern education. The purpose of
this research is to evaluate the relationship between teacher-student communication and
the critical thinking abilities of the students from a Romanian Faculty of Psychology. The
following objectives are being pursued: to build a questionnaire in order to examine the
teacher-student communication; to evaluate the critical thinking abilities of the students; to
analyze the relationship between these two dimensions. Method: Participants: The
participants in this study were a number of 164 students from a Faculty of Psychology in
Romania. From the entire number of participants 136 (82,9%) were women and 28 (17,1%)
male. Instruments: Three instruments were used to meet the objectives of the study: The
questionnaire of the teacher-student communication assessment (with three sub factors:
Barriers to communication, Communication – information, Communication –
relationships), The Analytical Reasoning Test, The Analogical Transfer Test. The study
reveals a statistically significant association between critical thinking skills (analytical
reasoning and analogical transfer) and the Communication - information sub factor.
Results: The average scores obtained by our research subjects on the three sub factors:
Barriers to communication (m=3.54); Communication – information (m=3.61) and
Communication – relationships (m=3.32) and on the general score – The teacher-student
communication (m=3.47) were reported to the standard of the questionnaire. Conclusions:
1 Corresponding author:
Andreea Stan
Email: [email protected]
38
The findings of this research allow us to underline the teacher-student communication
aspects correlated with critical thinking abilities.
Keywords: teacher-student communication, critical thinking, teaching, Analogical
Transfer Test.
1. THEORETHICAL FRAMEWORK
1.1. TEACHER-STUDENT COMMUNICATION
In the school context, teacher-student relationship is based on communication.
The term derives from the Latin communicare what means the action “to share”.
Luminita Iacob defines human communication as “the relationship based on co-
sharing of meanings” (Cosmovici, Iacob, 2005, p. 181). David Crystal, in An
Encyclopedic Dictionary of Language and Languages, underlines the complexity of
communication, which involve the formulation and coding the messages, the
transmission, decoding and the reception by the receiver (cited by Sălăvăstru,
2004).
The teacher-student communication is essential for successfully achieving the
teaching objectives, how it is done having a major impact on relations between the
interlocutors and on activities finalities. The teacher-student communication it is
seen as an interaction between individuals, interaction followed by behavioral
changes (Sălăvăstru, 2004).
The teacher-student communication is not reduced to cognitive aspect namely
the transmission of knowledge or information exchange, it involves other issues
such as: the empathy in communication, the persuasion, the tolerance of different
points of view, mutual respect, responsiveness, accountability, flexibility,
spontaneity.
A particularly important aspect in any communication, and especially in the
teaching communication, is the manner in which the feedback is made. This
provides the adjustment of the interlocutors’ behavior to the followed purpose
(Sălăvăstru, 2004).
The researches show that teacher-student relationship exerts a major influence
on the development of young people and their success in school. This influence
stems from the important roles that teachers have in their relationship with the
students. The teachers are perceived as examples to follow, both sources of
knowledge and support, counselors and advisers. A positive relationship with
teachers can lead in students a higher interest for the contents taught, offers new
opportunities for learning and the opportunity to obtain guidance and
encouragement from their teachers regarding the socio-professional aspects of their
life (Arredondo, 1995, cited by Chang, 2005).
39
1.2. THE CRITICAL THINKING ABILITIES
The development of critical thinking skills has become a priority in modern
education.
As Fok Shui Che (2002) claims the critical thinking is essential to achieve the
success in a personal, social and professional level, in a continuous changing
society. It is important that young people know how to apply knowledge acquired
in school in new and complex situations that will confront in the workplace. The
same author analyses the difficulties that can arise when we are trying to develop
the critical thinking skills. These difficulties can be both intellectual and especially
psychological. The critical thinking requires reconsideration and a review of the
ideas and beliefs that we have and we are used to. This represents a challenge for
the individual even when these beliefs are irrational or wrong (Fok Shui Che,
2002).
In the literature there is no consensus on the definition of critical thinking
concept. Reed (1998) analyses the definitions and theoretical models of this
concept in two disciplines relevant to the study of critical thinking: philosophy and
psychology. From the philosophical perspective, Richard Paul offers the following
definition “thinking about your thinking while you’re thinking to make your
thinking better” (Paul, 1993, p. 91, cited by Reed, 1998, p. 18). Within psychology,
critical thinking has been associated with problems solving. Halpern (1996)
outlines the goal-oriented nature of critical thinking, „the kind of thinking involved
in solving problems, formulating inferences, calculating likelihoods and making
decisions” (Halpern, 1996, p. 5, cited by Reed, 1998, p. 22).
The critical thinking skills are, according to Li and his colleagues (1999, p.
44) those abilities “to think analytically and solve problems effectively”.
The complexity of the concept of critical thinking lies in the multitude of
skills that include them. Among these are mentioned: „identifying assumptions,
identifying and dealing with equivocation, making value judgments, analyzing
arguments, asking and answering questions of clarification and/or challenge,
judging the credibility of a source” (Anderson et al., 2001, p. 2). Trying to make a
taxonomy of critical thinking skills, Ennis (1987) identifies 118 subcategories
(cited by Anderson et al., 2001).
Linn (2000) argues that critical thinking involves a number of skills such as
identifying the source of information, checking its credibility, comparing new
information with previous knowledge of the individual and making judgments
based on critical thinking (cited by Miri, 2007).
The critical thinking is a topic widely debated in the field of psychology and
science education. In a discussion on subjects which emphasize the development of
critical thinking skills it is necessary to recall the distinction made by Biglan
(1973) between disciplines based on a single paradigm (hard) and disciplines based
on multiple paradigms (soft). According to the author, psychology is part of the
40
second category of disciplines which subscribe to different theoretical perspectives
(Biglan, 1973, cited by Li, 1999). The researches assert that there are differences
between the academic cultures of the two types of disciplines, in case of the
disciplines based on multiple paradigms the teachers focus on the development of
cognitive skills of higher level such as critical thinking (Braxton, 1995; Lattuca,
Stark, 1995) on the character development of the students (Braxton, 1995; Smart,
Elton, 1982), on the development of the students’ communication skills (Lattuca,
Stark, 1995) and intellectual self-realization (Smart, Elton, 1982) (cited by Li,
1999).
According to American Psychological Association, among the skills that the
graduates of faculties of Psychology should acquire are: reading critically, avoid
bias and preconceptions in information searches, dealing with inconsistent
information, translate information into meaningful conclusions, recommendations,
or plans of action, structuring and evaluating arguments, experience in identifying
the most important problem(s) to be addressed from ambiguously defined problem
statements, can both solve general problems and focus on details, understanding
that there may be more than one route to problem solving, understanding that there
might not be only one right answer (American Psychological Association, Science
Directorate). All these abilities are included in the concept of critical thinking.
The specialists in educational field support the possibility to develop the
critical thinking skills on students, by conceiving programs for this purpose.
Tsui (1999) notes some of the instructional process characteristics that have
been identified by various authors as being associated with higher scores obtained
by the students on tests of critical thinking: the emphasis, in the process of
learning, on solving problems or on critical thinking (Bailey, 1979), centering on
the search for meaning through reading, writing and active participation in classes
(Gibson, 1985), classes that emphasize the investigation and operations of higher
level thinking (Suksringarm, 1976), by providing feedback to optimize the quality
and quantity of the student responses (Kaplan, Kies, 1994), the stimulation of the
participation of students, the support from the teacher and the interaction between
students (Smith, 1977) (cited by Tsui, 1999).
Although the development of the critical thinking skills is a stated objective,
the research in this field stresses that this is not easy to be achieved (Pitts, 2004).
Pitts (2004) highlights the fact that in psychology, more than in other disciplines,
convey of the myths and other information collected without a scientific basis often
causes non-critical acceptance of theories on human behavior. The author draws
attention to the role of media in this explosion of pseudo-scientific knowledge of
psychology sent to a large segment of the population. Keith Stanovich argues that
the information held by the public, even the educated one, about the psychology
are not often conform to reality; furthermore, the dissemination of these biased
messages prevent the public to independently evaluate the claims relating to human
behavior. The same author draws attention to the minor impact that the classes of
41
Introduction in psychology have on the students misconceptions (Higbee, Clay,
1998; Vaughn, 1977, cited by Pitts, 2004). This is another reason to develop the
critical thinking skills to the students in psychology.
2. OBJECTIVE AND HYPOTHESES
The present study is a descriptive one. Using data collected from students of a
Faculty of Psychology in Romania, the main objective of this research was to
examine the relationship between the teacher-student communication and the
critical thinking skills within this educational institution.
For this purpose, we propose the following objectives:
• the examination of the aspects of teacher-student communication in the
Faculties of Psychology in Romania;
• the evaluation of critical thinking skills (analytical reasoning and
analogical transfer) of the students from a university in Romania.
3. METHOD
3.1. PARTICIPANTS
The participants in this study were a number of 164 students from a Faculty of
Psychology in Romania. From the entire number of participants 136 (82,9%) were
women and 28 (17,1%) male. The average age of the subjects is 21,51 years,
minimum age is 18 years and maximum age is 29 years. The subjects were
randomly selected from the students in the three years of this cycle of education.
3.2. INSTRUMENTS
The questionnaire of the teacher-student communication assessment. To
evaluate the teacher-student communication a questionnaire was constructed
according to the following steps (Constantin, 2004):
• we asked to a group of subjects belonging to the target peoples to make
statements about the investigated dimension namely „teacher-student
communication”;
• we collected the statements and wrote them on a common list, correcting
any grammar mistakes and sentences miswriting and we removed the assertions
not related to the investigated dimension; it resulted a number of 82 statements; to
this list a table with demographic data and a scale for assessing the responses were
added (the Likert scale with 5 response choices);
• the initial questionnaire was applied to a group of 195 subjects
representative for the population covered by the final questionnaire;
42
• the obtained data were entered into SPSS and was performed the factorial
analysis; the analysis highlighted a general factor „the teacher-student
communication” and three sub factors; it followed the examination of the
statements of each of these sub factors and their name:
• the sub factor “barriers to communication” (expresses a teacher-student
communication lacks efficiency, there are bottlenecks in communication);
• the sub factor “Communication – information” (teacher-student
communication is seen as a transmission and exchange of expertise, interactivity in
the transmission of messages with scientific character);
• the sub factor “Communication – relationships” (teacher-student
communication is seen as a positive relationship in which free expression, mutual
respect, tolerance towards different points of view, flexibility and responsiveness
are valued).
• the intermediate outcome questionnaire was applied to a sample of 177
subjects; the obtained data were entered into SPSS to verify the “regularity” of
distribution of the responses on each item separately and internal consistency of the
items for each factor evaluated; were excluded the statements with means higher or
lower with a point than the theoretical average of the scale (3). The fidelity
characteristic of the questionnaire was verified by the analysis of internal
consistency. The internal consistency coefficients of the factors were: 0.889
(Barriers to communication), 0.765 (Communication – Information) and 0.836
(Communication – relationships). The Alpha Cronbach coefficient for the
questionnaire is 0.905.
• the final questionnaire was formulated and established the final standard to
which each individual data will be refereed .
The questionnaire consists of 31 items. The general factor “teacher-student
communication” includes all items from 1 to 31, the sub factor “Barriers to
Communication” - 9 items, the sub factor “Communication – Information” - 9
items and the sub factor ‘Communication – relationships” - 13 items.
The evaluation of critical thinking skills
In literature, the analytical reasoning and the analogical transfer are presented
as two important components of the critical thinking. This observation has
determined the authors of the study to focus on these skills of critical thinking,
considering their need to develop in the academic environment. Another reason for
our choice was the existence of some instruments which measure analytical
reasoning and analogical transfer, constructed and validated for the Romanian
population, which ensure the correctness of the inferences made starting with the
results that the students have obtained in those tests.
The Analytical Reasoning Test. This test measures the ability of individual to
discover rules and to use these rules to solve reasoning problems. The test contains
two subscales: the subscale of inductive reasoning and the subscale of deductive
reasoning. Each subscale is composed of 12 items.
43
The subscale of inductive reasoning contains two types of items: series of
letters and series of images. Subject is required to identify for each item the
forming rule of the series and to choose that option which continuous the series
according to the rule. The deductive reasoning contains items as premise
(situations) and four conclusions of which the individual must choose the one
which necessarily result from the premises (Cognitrom, Manualul Testelor de
Aptitudini Cognitive, 2007).
The Analogical Transfer Test. This test measures the individual’s ability to
apply the previously assimilated knowledge in new situations. The test consists of
two subscales: the verbal contents (22 items) and the figure contents (18 items).
Each item consists of a pair of elements between which there is a relationship,
a third element and four possible relationships. The individual is required to
identify the relationship of the first part of the items and to apply in the second
part, between the third element and one of the four answers (Cognitrom, Manualul
Testelor de Aptitudini Cognitive, 2007).
3.3. PROCEDURE
The administration of the questionnaires took place in a single step; the
participants received all the tools to complete the questionnaire, in paper-pencil
version. Initially they were asked to fill in some demographic data. Subsequently,
the subjects responded to the teacher-student communication questionnaire. In the
end, we administered samples for evaluation of critical thinking skills: analytical
reasoning and analogical transfer. Each subject received the tests and answer sheet.
There were presented the purpose of the evaluation and the instructions of each
test, as well as examples of items to ensure that the subjects have understood the
task. The participants were informed about the time allowed for each test sample
and also about the conditions for solving the items.
4. RESULTS
For the questionnaire of the teacher-student communication assessment, we
calculated the scores on the three factors: Barriers to communication,
Communication – information and Communication – relationships and a general
score – The teacher-student communication.
The average scores obtained by our research subjects on the three sub factors:
Barriers to communication (m=3.54); Communication – information (m=3.61) and
Communication – relationships (m=3.32) and on the general score – The teacher-
student communication (m=3.47) were reported to the standard of the
questionnaire. The factor Teacher-student communication and the sub factor
Communication – information have an average intensity of manifestation, and the
44
sub factors Barriers to communication and Communication – relationship have a
weak to medium intensity of the manifestation.
Regarding the critical thinking skills, we calculated the mean scores obtained
by female subjects and male subjects at the Analytical Reasoning Test and at the
Analogical Transfer Test and we refereed the results to the standards according to
sex and age.
At the Analytical Reasoning Test, the average scores obtained by the male
subjects is 14.71, which means, related to the standards (age category 19-29 years),
an average level of the ability to find logical rules and to use these rules to solve
problems. Regarding the subjects of female gender, the average scores obtained is
14.88, which indicates an average level of the analytical reasoning ability.
At the Analogical Transfer Test the average scores obtained by the male
subjects is 28.43, which means, related to the standards (age category 19-29 years),
an average level of the ability to apply the previously assimilated knowledge in
new situations. Regarding the subjects of female gender, the average scores
obtained is 31.41, which indicates an average to good level of the analogical
transfer ability.
The main objective of this research was to examine the relationship between
teacher-student communication and critical thinking skills in a Psychology Faculty
from Romania.
For this purpose, we used the correlation analysis in order to investigate the
association between the two variables of the study.
It had been evaluated the relationship between student performances on
analytical reasoning test and the perceived teacher-student communication. The
results indicate a significant correlation, positive, moderate (p<0.05, r=0.460)
between the analytical reasoning and the Communication-information sub factor,
that is to say the bigger the ability of individual to discover rules and to use these
rules to solve reasoning problems grows, the better the teacher-student
communication is seen as a transmission and exchange of expertise.
Concerning other aspects of the teacher-student communication (barriers to
communication, Communication - relations), we didn’t obtained significant
correlations with the analytical reasoning.
Another evaluated relationship was between the performance of students at
the analogical transfer test and teacher-student perceived communication. The
results indicate a significant correlation, positive, moderate (p<0.05, r=0.530)
between the analogical transfer and the Communication-information sub factor,
that is to say the bigger the ability of individual to apply the previously assimilated
knowledge in new situations grows, the better the teacher-student communication
is seen as a transmission and exchange of expertise.
45
The data do not indicate a statistically significant association between the
analogical transfer and other aspects of teacher-student communication (Barriers to
communication, Communication - relationships).
5. CONCLUSIONS
The development of the critical thinking skills is a stated objective in
academic environment. Optimizing the thinking skills of students is a necessity,
taking in consideration the constant changes in society, the diversity and
complexity of transmitted messages and the pressure to make the proper decisions
in different contexts.
As the authors show (Keith Stanovich, Shane Pitts), in psychology, perhaps
more than in other areas, it is necessary to provide the students with the “tools”
through which they understand and critically evaluate the messages received, so
that they can reach to the valid conclusions.
In this study we wanted to assess the critical thinking skills of the students
from a faculty of psychology and how they are associated with different aspects of
teacher-student communication.
First aspect that we want to discuss concern the low scores obtained by the
investigated group for Communication - relationships sub factor. Although the
interviewed subjects perceive the teacher-student communication as being held
without obvious obstructions (the existing barriers are perceived by the students as
having a minor impact on the communication), the low score on the
Communication - relationships factor indicates that subjects did not perceive the
student-teacher communication within the faculty that attend as an opportunity to
establish positive relationships with teachers, based on free expression, mutual
respect, tolerance to different points of view, flexibility and responsiveness. It is
important that teachers take into consideration this result, the more the study was
conducted in a psychology faculty and is expected that the students of this kind of
faculty to develop and acquire skills such as communication skills and establish
adaptive relationships with others.
The average level of critical thinking skills identified on the investigated
group indicates that it is necessary to take decisions for the future development of
these skills.
The study reveals a statistically significant association between critical
thinking skills (analytical reasoning and analogical transfer) and the
Communication - information sub factor, namely the high scores on critical
thinking skills positively correlate with the perception of teacher-student
communication based on informing the students, the exchange of scientific
information and the communication of the expertise. In our study, this factor of the
teacher-student communication is referring to the interactive dimension of
communication where the exchange of the information takes place and to the
46
modern methods used in the transmission of specialized knowledge. Thus, the
Communication-information sub factor should not be understood as a traditional
form of the unidirectional convey of knowledge from teacher to student, but as an
exchange of information, in which messages are transmitted and received in both
directions. The interactivity in communication can be materialized in the
transmission of scientific information, but also in questions about this information,
the debate of the pointed issues, and critical evaluation of the discussed materials.
The results are relevant for the group of subjects investigated. These may
direct the individuals involved in outline intervention strategies to improve teacher-
student communication and to develop critical thinking skills. We can not
generalize the information derived from this study, but these may become points of
departure for future studies on the topic discussed.
It is important that the presented results to be treated with caution due to the
limits of the study (small number of subjects, the existing limits in construction of
the questionnaire for assessing teacher-student communication).
47
6. REFERENCES
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Obtained During Graduate Study in Psychology http://www.apa.org/science/skills.html
[Accessed 27.05.2012].
Anderson, T., Howe, C., Soden, R., Halliday, J., & Low, J. (2001). Peer interaction and
the learning of critical thinking skills in further education students. Instructional Science,
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Chang, J. C. (2005). Faculty-student interaction at the community college: A Focus on
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Che Fok Shui (2002). Teaching Critical Thinking Skills in a Hong Kong Secondary
School. Asia Pacific Education Review, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 83-91.
Constantin, T. (2004). Evaluarea psihologică a personalului. Iaşi, Romania: Polirom.
Cosmovici A., & Iacob, L. (coord.) (2005). Psihologie şcolară. Iaşi, Romania: Polirom.
Li, G., Long, S., & Simpson, M. E. (1999). Self-perceived gains in critical thinking and
communication skills: are there disciplinary differences? Research in Higher Education,
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Manualul Testelor de Aptitudini Cognitive (2007). Cluj-Napoca: Editura ASCR.
Miri, B., David, B.-C., & Uri, Z. (2007). Purposely Teaching for the Promotion of
Higher-order Thinking Skills: A Case of Critical Thinking. Research in Science Education,
Vol. 37. No. 4, pp. 353-369.
Pitts, S. (2004). Critical Thinking in Psychology. A proposal for an ACS Teaching with
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27.05.2012].
Reed, J. H.. (1998). Effect of a model for critical thinking on student achievement in
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Rickards, T., & Fisher, D. (1999). Teacher-Student Classroom Interactions Among
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Sălăvăstru, D. (2004). Psihologia educaţiei. Iaşi, Romania: Polirom.
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48
SHORT TERM PSYCHOTHERAPIES
AUTHOR: IRINA HOLDEVICI
REVIEWD BY: VLAD BURTAVERDE & TEODOR MIHAILA
The book "short term psychotherapies" introduces therapeutic effectiveness
and efficiency as central elements of the premises for limiting the number of
treatment sessions, maintaining therapeutic focus on the central theme and active
avoidance of the psychotherapist-client addiction development.
These are just a few specific elements of short-term therapy, with practical
applicability and the patient may return to work, to his family and social life, after
a total of 6-12 sessions
The book contains fifteen chapters, each structured after a type of short-term
therapy. Thus, the second chapter presents the brief dynamic psychotherapy that
has an increased efficiency among patients with emotional disorders and resistance
toward psychotherapy.
Chapter III presents brief cognitive behavioral therapies that have as a central
element the therapeutic approach based on a well-developed therapeutic plan
starting from the modification of maladaptive character cognitions. Thus,
behavioral and affective processes are determined by how the subject interprets.
The author presents in detail examples of therapy sessions, strategies and
additional techniques such as "imagination guided technique”. A strong point of
this chapter is the "strategies of therapy and cognitive-behavioral counseling that
facilitate change" presentation.
Chapter IV "Ericksonian orientation hypnotherapy" brings into the readers
focus the principles of Milton Erickson's therapy where the therapist's role is to
observe how the patient communicates at all levels investigating the way patients
think and what patterns of communication they use.
The author, a specialist in clinical hypnosis, presents elements of
Ericksonian hypnosis and case studies with examples of patients treated with
hypnosis. The fifth chapter highlights "paradoxical" strategies applied by Erickson
49
in therapeutic treatments, where therapeutic plans, and other classic treatment
strategies do not work.
The VI-th chapter "Metaphor and Ritual in Psychotherapy" reveals metaphors
used in therapy and their role. Thus, metaphorical imagining technique or
metaphorical stories technique are just some of the techniques covered in this
chapter.
Chapters VII and VIII bring into focus short-term psychotherapy and
psychotherapy focused on solution-centered strategic solutions. These two modern
models of care put emphasis on patient resources and availability and not on
pathological weaknesses. The author states that specific for each solution centered
therapy is "combining strategic therapy focus with solution centered therapy,
clarifying the problem on the details."
Next, the book captures the specific elements of "constructivist brief strategic
psychotherapy," "interpersonal psychotherapy" and "feminist psychotherapy" in a
complete guide for exploring the presented case law and the basic theoretical
foundation in the practice of short-term psychotherapy.
Given the complexity of this work, because of both the types of short term
psychotherapies as well as the cases and examples presented, the book is
recommended for undergraduate, postgraduate, doctoral students or psychologists
who want to specialize in short-term therapy, as well as readers from other fields
who wish to enrich their knowledge in short-term therapies.
50