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Survival Skills for Researchers
Literature Review
Proposals
Manuscripts
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LITERATURE REVIEW
Goals
• To conduct a comprehensive search using pre-defined search strategy
• To identify all relevant published work
• To prepare quality review for thesis, proposal, manuscript
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Steps
• Identify sources and define search terms
• Search sources and identify relevant work within search results
• Track down and read articles
• Summarize each article
• Write critical review
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Sources
What type of information will you use?
• Published reports Original research reports Reviews Book chapters Proceedings from meetings
• Unpublished works, internet sites?
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Sources
Potential places to search
• Electronic databases (use >1)
• Key journals
• Reviews, chapters
• Colleagues, advisors
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Search Terms
• Break your research question into component parts General topics on importance of overall
scientific problem Specific topics from your research question
• Write down search terms for both Study relevant articles for keywords Combine certain search terms
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Search
• Search several electronic databasesGet help from librarianEnter appropriate termsCombine to narrow (Boolean operators)
• Perform “manual” search of citations in reviews and chaptersNote that there could be citation bias
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Search
• Ask colleagues and advisorsAsk for primary resources (often missed by
electronic search if before 60’s)Can be efficient but can also be biased
• Use your own experiencesRead field journals regularlyAttend meetings
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Track Down Articles
• Compile a working bibliography
• Find copies of articlesOnlineFrom libraryFrom colleagues
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Summarize Articles
Evaluate and take notes on Research question Methods Results Validity of conclusions Relevance of results/conclusions to
your research question (“sound bite”) Citations (new ones you can use?)
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Write Critical Review
Purposes of critical review/background section of thesis, proposal, manuscript
To show readers/reviewers that you have a good grasp of subject
To demonstrate that what you propose is important
To demonstrate that what you propose is new
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Responsible Conduct
• Be systematic -- find all relevant publications
• Synthesize previous work with no bias
• Only cite papers you have read
• If you are citing original work, use original report not review
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“Disregard Syndrome”*
Lack of regard for already published findings• “Old” scientific findings not available through
electronic sources• Intentional disregard
*Garfield, The Scientist Ginsburg, The Scientist
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Plagiarism
• Use of another person’s words or ideas without giving credit
• Acceptable practicesState finding from original report by
paraphrasing & giving appropriate citationQuote a statement (use quotation marks)
& give credit
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Plagiarism
• Questionable practice? Re-work someone’s idea without
giving credit Copy a paragraph verbatim preceded
by “___ found the following results.”
• Misconduct Copy paragraph verbatim without
credit
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PROPOSALS
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Proposal
Definition of a “proposal”: An offer proposing something to be accepted
• Something = Research plan
• Acceptance = Chance to get degree, funding, job position
Think of proposal writing as an opportunity
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Purpose of a Written Proposal
To portray
• Your good ideas
• Logic and suitability of design, methods, and analysis
• Contribution to advancement of scientific knowledge, public good, or aims of a company
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Purpose of a Written Proposal
Also need to present
• Competency of personnel
• Adequacy of research facilities and grantee organization
• Justification for amount of funding requested
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Anatomy of a Proposal
• Title
• Abstract
• Budget
• Investigators
• Resources
• Research plan
• Bibliography
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Title (or First Impressions)
• Purpose: To convey information and attract readers
Research goals Importance of work Key words and term
• Conform to guidelines
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TitlesExamples• 1R03AG15197 BRAND, RICHARD DOES
OSTEOPOROSIS ALTER BONE CELL RESPONSE TO STRAIN?
• 5P01AG05793 BURR, DAVID EFFECT OF SUPPRESSED BONE
TURNOVER ON SKELETAL FRAGILITY
Taken from NIH CRISP database
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Abstract or Summary
Purpose: To provide accurate description of project when separated from proposal
• Government agencies make abstracts of funded projects public
• Private Foundation/Company may use in annual report
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Abstract Instructions
HST MEMP Thesis Proposal“The abstract should include: 1) a condensed
description of the background and significance, explaining why the work is important, 2) the specific aims of the proposal, and 3) a summary of the
methods to be used to accomplish the specific aims.Headings within the abstract
(Background, Specific Aims, and Methods) are optional. The maximum length is 300 words.”
HST Student Handbook
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Abstract
Try to include:• Rationale/background 2-4 sentences• Hypotheses and specific aims 2-4 sentences• Proposed methods <=5 sentences• Closing sentence about interpretation and
importance of results
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Abstract
• Make it interesting (but not too provocative)
• Try to tell a story (albeit a short one)
• Follow instructions
• Write after bulk of proposal is written
• Make each sentence lead into next
• Write for public consumption
• Do not include proprietary information
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Research Plan
Purpose: To portray
• What do you intend to do? Hypotheses and Specific Aims
• Why is it important? Significance/Rationale/Background
• How are you going to do it? Design and methods
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Specific Aims
• In each Specific Aim, address, in practical terms, approach to test hypothesisDescribe what you will do to test hypothesisState specimens, variables, methods, and
sometimes even statistical analysis
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Specific Aims
• Try to write in one page
• Use present tense for hypotheses and future tense for specific aims
• Write first
• Share with peers & advisors for criticism
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Background
Build solid justification for proposed research:
• What is the general problem
• What is the impact of the problem
• What is known
• Which uncertainties you will address
• How will addressing these uncertainties advance scientific knowledge
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Background
Composition• Write for informed reader but not expert• Use strong topic sentences• Pull out topic sentences – should tell entire story• Focus on ideas not authors (make citations
parenthetical)• Do not use “Myers et al. found …”• Do use “Bone mineral density of the spine was a
strong correlate with vertebral strength (Myers et al…)”
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Design and Methods
• Longest, most important section
• No one organization fits all projects
• For many hypothesis-driven studies
(experiments, clinical trials)Start with “Overview” of study designThen organize “Methods” according to
Specific Aims
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Design and Methods
For each Aim
• Reiterate hypothesis/specific aim
• Describe specimens
• Describe variables to be assessed and methods for measurement (particularly new methods)
• Present plans for analysis and interpretation of results
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Design and Methods
To describe data analysis:Describe major independent and
dependent variablesState statistical hypotheses a prioriDescribe appropriate statistical test; give
reference if uncommonGive brief description of interpretationProvide enough information for competent
colleague to reproduce analysis
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Design and Methods
Justify number of laboratory animal or human subjects
Present results of power analysis Illustrate that enough data will be
collected to support proposed analysis
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Design and Methods
At end of Design and Methods, describe Potential difficulties and limitations Alternative approaches Timetable Welfare of animal and/or human
subjects
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Tips on Clarity and Style
Make appearance conducive to easy reading
Neat White space 12 point font
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Tips on Clarity and Style
Proofread to avoidTypographical errors Incomplete sentences Incorrect citations Inconsistent headings, font
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Tips on Clarity and Style
• Avoid acronyms, abbreviations, jargon
• Use figures and diagrams liberally
• Avoid figures that are hard to read
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Successful Proposals
• An idea with impact (significance and innovation)
• Focused hypotheses
• Reasonable specific aims that are directly related to hypotheses
• Innovative, appropriate methods
• Clear path to strong conclusions
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MANUSCRIPTS
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Examples of ScientificPublications
• Theses• Abstracts• Reviews• Letters to Editors• Case reports• Newsletter and newspaper articles• Journal articles (peer reviewed)
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Purpose of Journal Article
• Why write a journal article? To communicate research findings at
completion of study To put yourself in better position to
gain funding or promotion
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Aspects of Journal Article
• First disclosureException -- prior abstract or poster
• Sufficient information for scientific peers to assess
• Typically reviewed by expert outside of editorial staff (“peer”)
• Available through print medium
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Selecting Target Journal
• Select a target journal Scope Readership Length limitation Impact factor
• Obtain and read instructions
• Look at recent issue of target journal for fit and editorial style
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Impact Factor
• Frequency with which typical article in journal has been cited
• DefinitionA = 2002 citations to articles in given journal
published during past 2 years(2000-2001)B = total # of articles in journal in 2000-
2001 Impact factor= A/B
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Impact Factor
• Can be over longer time (e.g., 5 years)
• Sometimes omit self-citations
• Sometimes omit reviews
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Impact Factor
Examples (2001) Cell 29.2 Nature 28.0 Ann Intern Med 11.1 J Bone Min Res 6.2 J Biomech 1.9
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Structure of Journal Article
• Title page • Discussion
• Abstract and • Acknowledgment
key words • References
• Introduction • Tables
• Methods • Figure legends
• Results • Figures
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Title
• PurposeTo state main topic or outcome of studyTo interest readersTo be found by search software
• FormsPhraseStatementQuestion - rare
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Title: Examples
• Clodronate treatment of established bone loss in cardiac recipients [Ippoliti et al. Transplantation 2003]
• Risedronate prevents new vertebral fractures in postmenopausal women at high risk [Watts et al. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003]
• Can vitamin D supplementation reduce the risk of fracture in the elderly? [Meyer et al, J Bone Miner Res 2002]
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Abstract
• Follow journal instructionsStructured versus non-structured
• StateRationaleBasic methodsMain findingsMain conclusions
• 150 – 350 words
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Introduction
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Introduction
• Summary of what is knownBase on thorough literature reviewKeep it brief and relevant Include key references
• Narrow down to the specific uncertainty that you are addressing
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Introduction
Statement of aimsPut as last section of IntroductionMake it clear that you are about to state
research objectives; provide signal Examples:
“To determine…” “Therefore, the objective of this study was …” “To test the hypothesis that …, the following
study was …”
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Introduction
• Verb tensePresent tense for ideas and statements that
exist in the presentPast tense for what was done in the pastPast tense for objectives
• First personOptional
• LengthApproximately 5 paragraphs
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Methods
• Provide enough detail for evaluation of protocol
• Describe subjects or specimens
• Define variables and methods of assessment
• Describe statistical approaches
• Indicate approval by institutional committees
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Methods
• Organize chronologically
• Report in past tense
• Use figures only if add substantial information Illustrations of equipmentFlow charts of protocol
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Results
• Describe final set of study subjects or specimens
• Quantify results and present with indicators of uncertainty (often in figures)
• Present results of statistical analyses
• Guide reader through figures and tables that support findings
• Make brief statements of interpretation
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Results
• Present important data in figures or tables
• Check internal consistency among text, tables, and figures
• If you have choice of table OR graph, choose graph
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Visual Displays of Data
Goals:
• To display data with visual object
(efficient)
• To encourage viewer to compare different sets, see relationships
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Graphs
Choose graph that portrays appropriate message
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Graphs
To compare parameters among several groups: BAR GRAPH
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Graphs
To show spread in data and/or to compare distributions: BOX PLOT
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Graphs
To show relationship between two variables: SCATTER PLOT
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Graphs
To show change in variable over time: LINE GRAPH
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Graphs
Importance of zero on scale
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Tips for Graphs
• Present one main message per graph
• Do not include too much information
(confusing)
• Do not waste precious space -- if graph does not contain much information, put message in text
• Do not duplicate data in graphs and tables
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Citing Tables and Graphs
• Do not use reference to table or figure as topic sentence, e.g.:Figure 1 shows the results for bone strength.
Bone strength increased by 20% in the treated group compared with controls
(Figure 1).
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Results: Statistics
• Show that assumptions have been met
• Report magnitude of changes or differences in dependent variable with independent variable (often in Figure)Note that “p value” says nothing about size of
effect
• Present results of statistical analysisActual p values
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Results: Organization
• Organize chronologically or from most to least important
• Only include results that address stated objectives
• Use past tense
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Discussion
Main goals:
• To show that an answer to the research question has been obtained
• To discuss how this answer fits with previous work
• To fully disclose restrictions to interpretation
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Discussion
• Rephrase objectives and summarize main findings
• Compare to previous work
• Describe limitations and strengths
• Discuss implications
• Conclude
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Acknowledgment
• State:ContributorsSources of supportConflicts of interest or dual commitments
• Note that contributors should give written permission
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References
• Follow style of journal
• Use correct journal abbreviation
List of Journals Indexed in Index Medicus http://www.nlm.nih.gov/tsd/serials/lji.html
• Avoid “unpublished observations” and
“personal communication”
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Resources
• Garfield E: The impact factor. Curr Contents Jun 20; 253-7,1994.Avaliable online athttp://www.isinet.com/essays/jourmalcitationreports/7.html/• Ginsburg I: The disregard syndrome: A menace to honest science?
The Scientist 15:51, 2001• International Committee of Medical Journal Editors: Uniform
Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals. Available on-line at http://www.icmje.org
• Lang TA, Secic M: How to Report Statistics in Medicine, Philadelphia, Am College of Physicians, 1997
• Tufte ER: The Visual Display of Quantitative Information, Chesire, CT: Graphics Press, 1983 (1997 printing).
• Zeiger M: Essentials of Writing Biomedical Research Papers, New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 2nd edition, 2000.