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Canad
a
WrittenConstitution1982.Humanrigh
tsaresetoutintheCharte
rofRightsandFreedoms1
982.Dualistsystem.Allpro
vinces
arecommon
lawbasedexceptQuebec(civillawsystem).Atfederallevelt
helawisbasedontheConstitutionandlegislatio
nplus
caselaw.
Privatespher
eeffect?
Thete
xtoftheConstitutionisexplicitthatitisbindingonlyongovernmentandlegislatures.This'go
vern-
menta
laction'doctrineresemblesinsomerespectsthe
US'stateaction'doctrine.Thisdoesnotnormallyinclude
thecou
rts,thoughsomecaselawanddictasuggestthatthefactthatacourtdecidesap
rivateorcriminalmatterin
volves
stateaction.
ThecommonlawshouldbedevelopedinlinewithChartervaluesifitisinconsistentwiththem.Thusthereis
someindirecthorizontaleffectinthecommonlawbutinprincipleprivatesphereprotectionshouldbeleft
tothe
legislaturesandanalternativetort
systemshouldnotbedeveloped.
CountrybyCountryChart
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Country by Country Chart 521
Ifstateresponsibilitieshavebe
endelegatedtoorassum
edbyprivatebodies,or
iftherewasstateinvolve
ment
inpriva
teaction,Charterrightswillapply.
Ifprivatesphereactivityisreg
ulatedbystatute,e.g.wherethecommonlawhasb
eencodified,ortherestatutory
authorityfororapprovalo
finfringements,Charterrights
apply.
InQuebecthecivilcodeissta
tutory,theCharterapplie
s,andsothereisstrongerprivatesphereprotect
ionin
thatprovincethanelsewhere.
Examplesfrom
caselaw
Freedomofspeechatradeunionengaginginsecondarypicketingofaprivatecompanythatwasunlawfulatcommon
lawclaimedarighttofreedomof
speechundertheCharter.Heldthattherebeingnogovernmentalactionbased
inthe
commo
nlawthefreespeechguaranteewasnotbreached.An
injunctionagainsttheunio
nwasgranted(DolphinDelivery).
Freedomofspeechcourtbanonbroadcastingoffiction
almaterialthatmightpreju
diceatrialheldnottobe
inline
withtheneedtodevelopthecomm
onlawinlinewiththeChartervalues.Bansonlytobe
madewherenecessarytop
revent
substan
tialr
isktoafairtrial(Dage
naiscase).
Burden
isontheclaimanttoshow
thatthecommonlawissoinconsistentwithaCharterrightthatitcannolongerbe
justified
(Hillv
ChurchofScientology).
Governmentdoesnotincludeuniversities(Guelphcase).Butabody,e.g.aprivatehospital,maybepartofgovernm
entif
itisimplementingaspecificgovern
mentalpolicyorprogramm
e.Repealofprotectivelegis
lationmaybegovernmentaction
andattractgovernmentliability(Dunmorecase).
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522 Human Rights and the Private Sphere
Denma
rk
WrittenConstitution1849,amended1953.HumanrightsincludedintheConstitution.TheECHRwasincorporatedintoD
anish
lawin1991.
AdualistNordiclawsystemamixbetweenacivillawsystem(codesandlegislation)andacommonlaws
ystem
(muchlawtheresultofjudicialpractice/caselaw). P
rivatespher
eeffect?
Despitethefactthatthereishum
anrightsprotectionintheConstitution,thecourts
havenotreliedonthisto
justify
protectionofhumanrightsintheprivatesphere.Traditionally,
theprotectionofconstitutionalrightsisconside
reda
matterforpolitics,andprotectionofinternationalhumanrightshasbeenprimarilyaforeignpolicymatter.
Human
rightsprotectionrestsontheIncorporationAct1991andthedutyofallpublicaut
horitiestointerpretthelaw
com-
patiblywithinternationalobligations.
HumanrightsprotectioninDenmarkislargelydueto
legislationandthedevelopmentofjudicialpractice.
Theprevailingviewisthathumanrightshaveindirectratherthandirecthorizontal
effect.
Theinterpretiveapproachisregardedasmeaningthatintern
ationalhumanrightsha
vedomesticapplicabilit
y.
Humanrightsarewellprotect
edbyordinarylaw,inthepublicandprivatespheres,andhorizontale
ffectofordinary
legislationhasnotbeenconsidered
problematic.
Allcourtshavejurisdictiontodealw
ithhumanrightsissues.Thereisnopubliclawprivatelawdivide.
Inmany
casesitisdifficulttodistinguishhorizontalfromverticaleffect.Themain
featureofahorizontalcaseis
thatAsinterestsorrightsareaffectedbytheimplementationofBshumanrights.
Inbalan
cingconflictingrightsthecourtsareparticularlyconcernedaboutlegalcertainty,i.e.theforeseeabilityoflimitations
ofAsrightsforthesakeofBsrightsandthequestionwhetherthelimitsoneithersrightareprescribedbylaw.
Individu
alr
ightsandinterestsmayalsocoincideorclashwithpublicinterests,thusmakingitdifficulttodistin
guish
horizo
ntalfromverticaleffect
.
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Country by Country Chart 523
Examplesfrom
caselaw
Theinteractionbetweenjudicialandlegislativeimplement
ationofinternationalhu
manrights:dutiestopr
ovide
information,therighttosilence
Awitn
esssrighttosilenceund
erDanishlegislationtoavoidself-incriminationprevailsoveraclaimbydefendantsin
acriminaltrialtohearthewitn
esssevidence,andthisdo
esnotbreachArticle6ECH
R.Totheextentthatthissituation
involvesbalancingconflictingintere
stsithasahorizontalaspect.
Inbankruptcyproceedingstheboardmembersrights
againstself-incriminationprevailovertheirdu
tyin
Danish
legislationtoprovideinformationtothetrusteetoprotectthepropertyrightsofcreditors.Therig
htto
silence
wasafundamentalrightinDanishlawandtheEC
HRArticle6.
Incom
petitionlawproceeding
saphysicalorlegalpersonsrighttoremainsile
ntwillnotnecessarilyprevail
overEuropeanlawrequirementsthatitprovideinform
ationinordertoprotect
therightsofthecompetitorsand
thepub
licinterest.
ImplementationoftheEUEnforcementDirectiveinDenmark
providesfortherighttosilenceofallegedinfringersof
IPrigh
tstoprevailovertheow
nerspropertyrights.
Childrenmaybecompelledto
giveevidenceagainstth
eirmotherinacriminaltrialinwhichshewaschargedwith
assaultinganotherchild,andthiswasnotregardedasabreach
ofECHRArticle8oroftheConventionontheR
ights
oftheChild.
Childvictimsofcrimemayhavetheirevidencevideotaped,butthedefencelawyerisentitledunderDanishlegislat
ionto
seethe
videoandaskquestionsof
thewitnessthroughtheinterviewer.Iftheserulesare
breachedtheuseofthevideoas
evidenc
ewillberestrictedandaco
nvictionbasedinpartonth
evideomaybequashed.Thefairtrialrightofthed
efen-
dantis
balanced,throughlegis
lation,withthechildvic
timsrights.
Resolu
tionofindirecthorizontaleffectissuesisfact-se
nsitiveineachparticula
rcase.Ineachsuchsituationthe
balance
isachievedpragmatically.
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524 Human Rights and the Private Sphere
Englandand
Wales
Nowrittenconstitution.HumanRights
Act1998notentrenched
.Dualistcommonlawsyste
m.
Privatespher
eeffect?
Mosthumanrightsareprotec
tedinordinarylawbya
combinationofstatutesan
dcommonlawandequitydevel-
opments.
Additio
nalprotectionisprovidedundertheHumanRightsAc
t1998whichimposesanin
terpretiveobligationandanobli-
gationtodevelopthecommonlaw
,bothobligationscreatingformsofindirecthorizontaleffectofrightsunde
rthe
ECHR.
Developmentofhorizontale
ffectislargelytheresponsibilityofallcourtsunderthe
HumanRightsAct.Practitioners
rarelyt
akehorizontale
ffectpoints
.
Explicit
referenceismadeinthe(rathersparse)caselawtotheECHRandtovaluesun
derlyinghumanrightssuchas
dignityandautonomy.
Inthea
bsenceofatraditionalpublicprivatedividethecourtshavebeenabletodevelopp
rivatesphereprotectionthrough
develop
mentofthecommonlaw,importingconceptsfrompubliclaw.
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Country by Country Chart 525
Examplesfrom
caselaw
Privatelife
/freedomofthepress
SincetheHRAthetortofbreachofconfidencehasdevelopedintoarighttotheprotectionofprivateinform
ation,
throughthedevelopmentofthecommonlaw,butwithoutgivingdirecthorizontale
ffect
toECHRArticle8.
Balanceofprivacyandfreesp
eechinvolvesparallelanalysisinwhichneithertrumpstheother.Buttheweightgiven
toindividualinterestsinhealthandpsychologicalwellbeingandrespecthastendedtooutbalance
press
freedomunlessthecourtissatis
fiedthatapublicinterestin
publicationoutweighsit.
Aproportionalitytest,weighingtheinterestsofthetwosidesandpublicinterests,isappliedtoachievethebalan
ce.
Privatelife
/righttoahome/non-dis
crimination
Same-sexrelationshipsandrighttorespectforprivatelifeandhomehaveb
eengivenrecognitionand
status
throughConventioncompatibleinterpretationoflegislationregulatingthelandlordandtenantrelationship
,thus
implementingthepositiveob
ligationoftheUKtose
curetheECHRArticle8righttorespectforprivatelife
andtheArticle14rightnottobediscriminatedagainst.
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526 Human Rights and the Private Sphere
France
FifthRepublicConstitution1958.Nob
illo
frightsintheConstitution,butthe1789Declarat
ionoftheRightsofManandthe
CitizenandthePreambletothe1946C
onstitutionaretreatedassourcesforhumanrightspr
otection.Monist,civillawsystem.
Privatespher
eeffect?
Constitutionalhumanrightsprotectionshavenotbe
engivendirecthorizon
taleffect(savepossiblyinone
Courd
ecassationcase)becauseo
fthelimitedroleoftheConseilconstitutionnel,thereluctanceoftheCourdecassation
tocite
caselaworrefertotheCo
nstitutioninitsdecisions,a
ndthetraditionofapublic/privatelawdivideinFrance
.
Article
55oftheConstitution(themonistarticle)allowsdire
ctapplicationofinternationaltreatiesbyFrenchcourts:this
hasled
tothedirecthorizontaleffectofECHRrightsin
France,givingrisetotheconventionalisationofp
rivate
law.ThejurisprudenceoftheStrasbourgcourtandthepositiv
eobligationofstatestopro
tectagainstviolationofrightsby
private
partieshaveledFrenchc
ourtstoapplythecase
lawoftheStrasbourgcourtdirectly,andtodevelop
horizo
ntalapplicationindirec
tly(throughinterpretation)aswell.TheCourdecassationmaysetasideF
rench
legislationthatisincompatiblewithaTreaty,includingtheECH
R.Thereremains,however,afearofjudge-madelaw.
Thefoc
usindirecthorizontale
ffec
tcaseshasbeenonrelatio
nshipswheretherearepowerinequalities,forinstance
employer/employee,landlord/tenan
t,press/individual.
Examplesfrom
caselaw
Employment
Inuneq
ualrelationshipssuchasem
ployer/employeethestrongerpartymayonlyrestricttheweakerpartysrights,e.g.to
decide
wherehisfamilyhomeshallbe,ifhecanshowthat
thisisnecessarytoprotecttheemployerslegitimateinterests
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528 Human Rights and the Private Sphere
Pressinvasionofprivacy.Before
theECHRtheemphasiswasontherighttoprivacyand
theissuewaswhetherthevictim
ofpressintrusionhadconsented.UndertheinfluenceoftheE
CHRmoreimportancetha
nhithertoisgiventotherightof
thePre
ssandthetworightsunderArticles8and10needtobebalancedbyap
roportionalitytest.
Dignity
Dignit
yisrecognisedasacons
titutionalprinciplewhic
hmayalsoapplyintheprivatesphere:itlimitstheright
ofthepresstophotographandreportonaccidentvictims.C
ontractsfordwarfthrowingsareunenforceableasinfr
inging
dignity,
evenifthepartiesagreeto
theterms.Dignityisavalu
ethatpervadesthelegalsystem.Article6oftheCivilCode
onord
republicjustifieslimitation
sonfreedomofcontractinthenameoftheprotectio
nofdignity.
Freedomofconscience/religion
Jewish
tenantscomplainedthattheelectricaldigicod
einstalledbytheirland
lordtocontrolaccesstothe
premisesinfringedtheirfreedom
ofreligionandofmoveme
nt,astheywerenotpermittedtousethemontheSabbath.
Theyclaimedthelandlordhadapositiveobligationnottointe
rferewiththeserights.The
Courdecassationoverruledthe
Courtofappealdecisioninfavourofthetenants,holdingthatsuchconsiderationscannotimposepositivedutieson
thelandlordiftheyarenotspecifiedinthecontract.
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Country by Country Chart 529
Germa
ny
BasicLaw(BL)1949includesBillo
fRightswithusualcivilandpoliticalr
ightsplusequalityofthesexesandprotectionagainst
discrimination.Italsoprovidesforh
umandignityasacorec
onstitutionalvalue.TheBundesverfassungsgericht(BVG)or
ConstitutionalCourthaspowertoset
asidelegislationthatisincompatiblewiththeBL,whic
hprevailsoverallotherlaw
,both
pre-andpost-1949,includingtheCivilCodeof1900andtheECH
R.Individualshavedirectac
cesstotheBVG.
Privatesphereeffect?
Rightsbindthelegislature,executiveandjudiciary.Noexpre
ssprovisionforprivate
sphereeffectexceptinrelation
tocertainexercisesoffreedomofassociationandanexceptionalrighttoresistattemptst
oabolishtheconstitutionalorder.
ThesereceivedirecteffectprotectionunmittelbareDrittwirk
ung.Theextentofthisform
ofprotectionislimitedbecause
ofconcerntoprotecttheautonomyofcivilsociety.
TheBV
Ghasalsodevelopedsome
indirecteffectmittelbare
Drittwirkung.Ithasheldthat
theBLhasaradiatinge
ffect
andem
bodiesafundamentalan
dobjectivesystemofvalues.TheBLplacesthestateunderanobligationtoprotect
human
dignityandthisjustifiesextendinghumanrightsprotectio
ntotheprivatesphere.This
isdonethroughaformofin
direct
horizontale
ffect(mittelbareDrittwirkung).Law,includingtheC
ivilCode,mustbeinterpretedcompatiblywiththeBL.Alaw
whichbreachesBLrightswillbeinvalidatedbytheBVG.
Inorde
rtoprotecttheautonomyofcivilsociety,therehastobeabalancingoftherigh
tsofbothpartiesinaprivate
disput
e.TheBVGwillonlyexerciseitsprotectivejurisdictioniftheinfringementissubstantialandaffe
ctsan
importantright,ifdamageisverylik
elyandifthebalancebetweenthepartiessoindicates.Thusprivatesphereeffectofhuman
rightsdoesnotaffectthenormalo
perationofprivatelawsave
inextremecircumstances,unlessspecificallyprovided
forby
alaw.T
hisisbecauseofconcernaboutlegalcertainty,sinceconstitutionalr
ightsareimpreciselydraftedandthejudges
mayno
tbewellequippedtoextendrightsprotectionintotheprivatesphere.
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530 Human Rights and the Private Sphere
Academiccommentaryjustifiesprivatesphereeffectonthe
groundthatthestateisu
nderapositiveconstitutional
dutyt
oprotecthumanrights,butiscriticalofinterferencewithfreedomofcontrac
t.
Examplesfrom
caselaw
Anemployerdismissedanemployeefordistributingpoliticalpamphletsduringworkingh
ours.Thedismissalwasuph
eldby
theFederalLabourCourt,butitw
asheldthattheBLprohibitionofdiscrimination
ongroundsofpoliticalviews
andth
efreedomofexpressionprovisionintheBLcouldplacelimitsontheemployersrightsunderlabour
law,in
ordertopreventveryunreasonableexerciseofprivatepower.Thedecisionthusacknowledgessomedirect
hori-
zontaleffectofBLrights.
Where
anauthorcriticisedanotherforhisinvolvementinthe
Naziregime,heshouldnotberestrainedbythecourtsfrom
future
criticismtoprotectthefin
ancialinterestsofthosehe
criticised.Theauthorsc
onstitutionalrighttohuman
personalityanddignity,whichlieattheheartoftheBL,sh
ouldbeprotectedviamitte
lbareDrittwirkung:Luth(195
8).
Publish
inghouseAcalledfortheboycottingofpublishinghouseBspublicationsandthreatenedtoendcommercialrela-
tionshipswithnewsagentswhost
ockedBspublications.The
BVGheldthatthebalanceneednotbeinfavour
ofAs
freespeechasagainstBscom
mercialinterests,andindeedBsfreespeechrightsentitledBtoaremedy
whichthelowercourtshadapositiveobligationtoprovide:B
linkfuer.
Abort
ion:whentherightsofapregnantwomanandunbornchildconflicted,thestateshouldprotecttheunborn
childs
righttolifeexceptwheretheburdenonthemotherofcontinuingthepregnancywouldbeintolerable.TheBVG
setoutadetailedschemeforconstitutionallyacceptablelegis
lationwhichthelegislature
induecoursecompliedwith.
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Country by Country Chart 531
Greec
e
WrittenConstitution,mostrecentlyrevised2001.Containsmanyhumanrightsprovisions.Monistcivillawsystem.
Privatespher
eeffect?
Constitutionalandother,e.g.international,humanrigh
tsexpresslyapplytothe
relationsbetweenindividuals
towhichtheyareappropriatesincethe2001constitutionalrevision(Article25(1)andsection3).However,theab
stract
nature
ofconstitutionalprinciples
(theyarenotself-executing)isnotadequatetofound
claimsandremedies:alink
with
privatelawisrequiredtoprovideaconduitforthetransferofconstitutionalrightstotheprivatesphere
sinceArticle25(1).IntheabsenceofexpressprovisionArticle
25(1)doesnotgivejudgesthepowertoapplyConstitu
tional
rightsh
orizontallyanddirectly.
TheAr
ticle25(1)principleisseen
asanobjective(publicp
olicy)justificationforprivatesphereprotection
,per-
meatingthewholelegalorde
r.BeforethisarticlewasincludedintheConstitutio
n,theoreticaldiscussioncentred
around
anumberofthemes:Drit
twirkung,suggestingthirdpartyeffect,wasrejectedasimplyingthatthein-
dividualintheprivatesphere
wasanoutcastofthestate-citizenrelationship;horizontale
ffectorinterper-
sonaleffectwerepreferredterms
.
TheadditionofArticle25(1)
hasputanendtoearliertheoreticaldiscussionaboutthebasisforhuman
rights
protectionwhetherit
wasorshouldbedirectorindirectDrittwirkung.Inthetheoreticaldebate
,hori-
zontaleffectwouldbedirectifco
nstitutionalr
ightswereenforcedindependentlyofexistingprivatelawsothatthe
effect
waslaw
creative.Thiswouldhave
beenunacceptable:itwouldhavebeeninbreachoftheseparationofpowersasu
nder-
stoodinGreece,sinceitwouldhavegiventhejudgealegislativ
epoweranditwouldhaveunderminedthepoweroftheleg-
islatortoregulateinterpersonalre
lationsthroughprivatelaw.
AnindirecthorizontalapproachseemedmoresuitedtotheGreeklegalsystem,involvingtheco-applica-
tiono
fconstitutionalrightsandprivatelawnormsthroughadialoguebetwe
enconstitutionalandprivate
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Country by Country Chart 533
Constitutionalrightsbeyondt
helaw.Inthecaseoftheconstitutionalprohibitionon
theadmissibilityofunlawfully
obtain
edevidence,thecourts
havedecidedinparticu
larcaseswhethersuchevidenceshouldbeadm
itted,
onthe
basisofarangeofcons
titutionalrights,includingdignity,privacyandfree
domofcommunicationasagainst
thesea
rchfortruthintrialsandtherightofdefence.Therehasbeennorecoursetopriv
atelawnorms.Thisisseenasa
formofdirecteffect.However,
difficultiesflowfromtheab
stractandgeneralnatureo
fconstitutionalprinciples.
Thesefourapproachesprovideco
ncreteeffectsforconstitutionalrightsinprivatelawinsteadofwhatwouldotherw
isebe
abstrac
tapplication.Theycombinelawcreativeeffect(whichisregardedasdirect)andhermeneuticorin-
terpre
tiveeffect(whichwouldbeindirect)butavoidingtheneedtocharacterisetheeffectspecificallyin
either
category.
Theroleofthejudgeisconsideredtobetoactasm
ediatorofconstitution
alrightsinprivatelaw.Thisis
partofhisroleintheseparationofpowersandnotabreach
ofit,andofhisdutiesofequalrespectforthelegislatorand
theCo
nstitutionandtogivejudic
ialprotectiontoindividuals.Hemusttakeintoaccou
nttheconstitutionalpositionsof
parties,andjustifyinhisdecisions
arefusaltoprotecttheirconstitutionalrights.Heneednotspecifywhetherheis
giving
directorindirecteffecttothem.
Examplesfrom
caselaw
Article281oftheCivilCode
Emplo
yersautonomyrightinvolvesarighttomanageth
eenterprise,includingdism
issingemployees.Thecivilcourts
havein
vokedtheArticle281(abusiveenforcementofrights)toholdthattheemplo
yersautonomyrightis
con-
strainedbyfundamentalconstitutionalprinciplespr
otectingpersonalityan
ddignitysothattheemployer
mustjustifydismissaltothecourtsintermsoffinancialreaso
nsortheneedtopreserve
theviabilityoftheenterpriseor
propor
tionality.Employeeshaverights,derivedfromthecon
stitutionalprotectionofpe
rsonality,againstunjustified
deci-
sionsb
yemployers.Thustheco
urtshavepreventeddismissalonpersonalorp
oliticalgrounds,orwhenthey
-
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534 Human Rights and the Private Sphere
havebeendisproportionatetothe
managementright.Thisis
notanexampleofindirecteffectbutofthedev
elop-
mentofconstitutionalrightsinprivatespheredisputesandabalancingproce
ss.
Article57
oftheCivilCode
Theprotectionoftheculturalandnaturalenvironment,protectedasbothasocialandacivilrightbyArticle
24(1)
oftheConstitution,canbeanelem
entoftheprivaterightt
opersonalityundertheC
ivilCode.Amonasticcomm
unity
atMeteoracomplainedwhenafamoussingersang,dancedan
dfilmedinsidethemonasteryinthepresenceofthemonks
andma
deandmarketedavideotopromoteherCD.Itwasheldtheprivatelawrightto
personalityincludedrespe
ctfor
theirnaturalandculturalenvironm
ent.Thecourtsfoundinfavourofthemonksandprohibitedthesingertous
ethe
photographicorvideotapedm
aterial.Thecaseshowshowacollectiveconstitutionalinterestsuchasth
een-
vironm
entcanacquireanindividualisticdimensionwhencombinedwithaprivatelawright.
Constitutio
nalrightsandspecificprivatelawnormsrenunciationofpaternity
Intheearly1980stheCivilCodewastakentomeanthatachildborninwedlockwasautomaticallyrecognis
edas
thech
ildofthemothershusbandandcouldnotrenouncetherelationshipifthey
werenotinfactbloodrelations;
onlyth
elegallyacknowledgedfathercouldrenouncetherelationshipunderArticles1471and1475oftheCivilCode.
Morerecently,thecourtshavedecidedthattheconstitutionalprotectionofd
ignity,theconstitutiona
land
CivilC
oderighttopersonalityandtheconstitutional
protectionofthefamilytakentogethermeanthata
childhastherighttodiscover
itstrueidentityaspartoftherighttopersonality.T
hisapproachisregardedin
some
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Country by Country Chart 535
Greektheoreticalliteratureasafo
rmofdirectDrittwirkung,b
ecauseitisseentobelaw-creative,fillingvacuumsinth
elaw,
ratherthaninterpretive.Ifthisisthecaseitisabreachofthe
separationofpowersasun
derstoodinGreece.
Useofunlawfullyobtainedevidence
ByArticle19(3)ofthe2001Const
itutionalrevision,useofso
meunlawfullyobtained
evidenceisprohibited.Thisin-
cludesevidenceconcerningtheprivatesphereoftheindividua
l.Thisprovisioncausesconflictsbetweenconstitutionalprin-
cipleso
utsideprivatelawdignity,privacy,freedomofcommunicationversusthesearch
fortruthintrialsandtherightof
theindividualtopresentevidenceinsupportoftheircasetothecourt.Beforethe2001constitutionalrevision,thecourts
werebalancingfreelybetweenconstitutionalprovisionsconce
rningtheprivatesphereoftheindividualandtheimportance
oftheuseofevidenceforthesearchoftruthpermittingingeneraltheuseandsubmissionofsuchevidence.Afterthecon-
stitutionalrevisionof2001,Article
19(3)haslimitedthewayc
ourtsappreciatesuchcases
intheoppositedirection,t
husin
favouringtheprivatesphere.There
by,thisarticleisinterpretedintwoways:whenitisappliedtothecriminaltrialitissub-
jectto
limitedexceptions,e.g.,the
interestintheprotectiono
flifeandthepresumptionofinnocence.Ontheother
hand,
whenitisappliedintheciviltrialitisconsideredtoprotecttheprivatesphereoftheindividualinanabsolutemanner.In
thosec
asesthecivilcourtshave
broughtintothebalanc
etheprotectionofdignity,theprivatesphereaspro-
viding
afoundationfortheen
joymentoffreedomofcommunicationbetweenindividuals.Thistransfo
rmsa
proceduralissueabouttheadmissibilityofevidenceintoasub
stantiveissuetodowithrights.Itisregardedasdirect
effect
asitisindependentofanyprivatelawnormandrestsonArticle19(3)oftheConstitutio
n.
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536 Human Rights and the Private Sphere
India
WrittenCo
nstitutioncameintoeffect1950.Containsmanyhumanrightsprovisions.Dualistsuigenerisvariantofcommonlaw
system.
Privatespher
eeffect?
Funda
mentalhumanrights(m
ostlycivilandpoliticalrigh
ts)assetoutintheConstitutionandsomeofthosesetout
ininter
nationaltreatiesarebindin
gnotonlyonthestatebut,dependingonthete
xtoftheConstitutionandits
interp
retationbythecourts,a
lsoagainstprivateparties.
Thisis
conceptualisedasliability
fornon-stateaction,i.e.liabilityofnon-stateactors,thejustificationforthisliability
beingthatthestatehasfailedtotakestepstoprotectindivid
ualsfromabuseorhascon
nivedatabuse,inwhichcasethe
courtm
ayimposeliabilityonthenon-stateactor.
TheConstitutioncontainsjudiciallyenforceablefundamentalrights,aswellasDirectivePrinciplesofStatePolicy
andFu
ndamentalDuties.Thelatterentailtheideathatcitizensshouldrespecttherightsofothers.
ThehistoryofIndiasuggeststhatseriousthreatstoindividualsrightscomefromprivatepartiesmore
than
fromthestate.Thespiritofthe
constitutionistopromote
thewelfareofallandthecourtshaveadoptedthisspiritin
developingtheeffectofrightsintheprivatesphere.
Allcourtshavejurisdictionto
enforcethefundamentalrightsagainstallbodies,publicorprivate.
TheConstitutionsexpressprovisionforstateliabilityforbre
achofsomefundamentalrightsincludesaverybroaddef-
inition
ofthestate,whichthecourtshaveextendedtoinc
ludemanybodiesthatwouldberegardedasprivatein
other
jurisdic
tions:bodiesthatareagentsofthestateincludingcorp
orations,societiesandotherbodies:e.g.,educationalandre-
search
institutes,co-operativeban
ks,electricityboardsandprivateeducationalinstitutions(boundtorespectarightto
equality).ButtheBoardofCricketControlhasbeenheldnottobeanagency
ofthestate.Courtsare
not,
howev
er,includedinthestate
andtheremedyforajudg
esfailureinjudicialdecisionstorespectrightsisthea
ppeal.
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Country by Country Chart 537
Thedutyofthestatetoprote
ctrightsgivesrisetoliabilityofprivateparties,developedbythecourts,for
breachesoffundamentalrights.
Inthe
Indianversionofdualismandinsupportoftheruleoflaw,humanrightsprotectionsininternationalinstru-
mentstowhichIndiaisparty,and
inothers,canbeenforce
dwithoutlegislativesupportaslongastheyarenot
inconsistentwithIndianlaw.O
thertreatyprovisionsdon
othavedirecteffect.
Thereisnopubliclaw/privatelawdichotomyinIndiaexc
eptinrelationtotheremedyofjudicialreview.Human
rights
theory
inIndiarequiresthestatet
obringforwardlegislationtoremoveinequalitiesandindignitiesintheprivateaswellas
thepublicsphere.
Libera
lPublicInterestLitigatio
n(PIL)rulesenabletherightsofthepoortobejudicia
llyenforcedagainstprivateb
odies.
TheSupremeCourtmay,and
does,makerecommendationsandgivedirectionstogovernmentasto
how
obligationstopromotehumanrightsshouldbefulfille
d.
Examplesfrom
caselaw
Equality
Unreas
onablecontractualclausesmaybestruckdownasinfringingequality.
Sexualharassmentintheworkp
laceisabreachoftherighttogenderequalityandliberty,andabreachofinternationalhu-
manrightsnorms.InPILthecou
rtissueddirectionsforbo
thpublicandprivateemployersastohowtoprotectthe
women
srightswhichwouldbebindinguntilParliamentlegislatedonthematter.
Employment
Rights
againstforcedlabourandchildlabourareenforcedagainstprivateemployers(andresponsiblestatebodies)as
beingcontrarytotherighttodignity.Heredirectiveprinciples
maybeenforcediftheyare
recognisedasfallingwithinfunda-
mental
rights.
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538 Human Rights and the Private Sphere
Therighttolife
Thisincludesarighttohealthagainstprivatepollutersanddistributorsofinjuriousdrugsorchemicals.In
some
casesthecourtdirectsthestatetotakemeasurestoprotect
therights.
Privacy,ma
rriage,autonomy
Where
apersonwhoisHIV()findsaplannedmarriageiscalledoffbecauseahospitalhasdisclosedhiscondition
tohis
bride,therightofthebridean
dthebridegroomhave
tobebalanced.Thedisclosurewasnotanunlawfulb
reach
ofhisp
rivacy.
Environmentalp
rotection
Freedomfrompollutionispartoftherighttolifeandale
aseholderwhohadcaused
pollutionhadhisleasecancelled
bythecourt.
Untouchab
ilityandfreedomofrelig
ion
Protec
tionofuntouchablesdo
esnotinvolveanunlawfulinterferencewithfreedomo
freligion.
UnfairproselytisingbyChristia
nsisaviolationoffreed
omofconscience.
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Country by Country Chart 539
Irelan
d
WrittenCo
nstitution1937.HumanrightsincludedintheConstitu
tionandtheEuropeanCou
rtofHumanRightsAct200
3(the
latternotentrenched).Dualistcommonlawbasedsystem.
Privatesphereeffect?
Mostrightsareprotectedino
rdinarylawbyacombinationofstatutesandcommo
nlawandequity.
AdditionalprotectionisprovidedundertheConstitution,includingexpressandimplied(unenumer
ated)
rights.Expressprotectionforpersonalrightssuchasequality,fairtrial,libertyetc.a
nd,since1983,byconstitutional
amendmentrighttolifeoftheunb
ornchild.Unenumeratedp
ersonalrightsincludelivelih
oodandprivacytocommunicate.
TheEuropeanCourtofHuma
nRightsAct2003provid
esadditionalprotectionsviaadutyofcompatibleinter-
pretation.Butthereisnodutyo
nthecourtstodevelopthecommonlawcompatiblywiththeECHR.Thereis
asyet
littlecaselawonthis.
Legal
recognitionisgiventou
nderlyingconstitutionalvalues,e.g.humandignity.
Private
sphereprotectionisconc
eptualisedasdirecthoriz
ontaleffectofConstitu
tionalrights,developedbythe
Suprem
eCourtthroughawardsofdamagesfortheconstitu
tionaltort.ThisisbasedontheviewthattheConstitution
isthefoundationallegalnormtow
hichallothernormsmust
conform.Itisthecourtsdutytoprovideprotection.
Noge
neraldistinctionismadebetweenpublicandpr
ivatebodies.
Human
rightsissuesmayberaised
beforeallcourts.
Buttheoriginaldoctrineofdirecthorizontaleffectisno
wsubjecttomodifications:itonlyappliesifordinarylaw
providesplainlyinadequateprotec
tionfortherightorisman
ifestlydeficient;unlessthat
isthecaseitcannotbereliedon
toshap
eexistingtortsoradjustad
jectivallaw,e.g.retheburdenofproof;thereisthusresistancetoindirecthoriz
ontal
effect.Thereis,however,caselaw
wherethecourtshaveinterpretedlegislationsoastobecompatiblewithconstitutional
rights,forinstancetradeunionleg
islation.
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540 Human Rights and the Private Sphere
Unclearwhethertheconstitutionaltortisactionablepe
rseoronlyonproofofd
amage,whetherliabilityis
strict,
whethe
rallconstitutionalrightsa
reactionableintheprivatesphere(e.g.,theequalityclause),howthebalancing
processworksintheprivatespherewhereconflictingrights
andinterestsareatstake.
Modific
ationstodirecthorizontale
ffectinmorerecentcaselaw
reflectashiftfromnatur
allawtheorytoademocratic
approach.
Adhocliberaljudicialapproachproduceslegaluncertaintyanduntheorisedand
unresolveddifficulties,e.g.,inthe
anti-abortioncases,whichseekto
protecttherighttolifeof
theunbornchildbutimpo
seliabilityonprivateactorswho
couldn
otknowtheywereactingunlawfullyandwereexercisingfreedomstodisseminateinformationetc.oralsoseekto
balance
therightstolifeoftheunbornchildandthemother.
Examplesfrom
caselaw
Trade
unionsStrikeinsupporto
fclosedshopheldtobecon
trarytoexpressconstitutionalrighttofreedomofassoc
iation:
statute
tothecontrarydisapplied
andinjunctiongranted.
Strike
toforcedismissaloffem
aleemployeescontrarytoimpliedconstitution
righttoearnalivelihoo
d.The
legislationwasinterpretedsoas
tobecompatiblewiththeConstitution.
Dismissalofemployeesrefusingto
signnewemploymentcontractsrequiringunionmembershipisaconstitutional
tort.
Tradeunionactivitywhichclosesdownschoolsisabreachofthepupilsrighttoeducation.
Naturaljusticerequirementsin
privatedecisionmaking.
Abortionwouldbeinbreachoftheunbornchildsexpressco
nstitutionalrighttolife,and
thusdisseminationofinform
ation
abouta
bortionisrestrainable.T
hesuicidalm
othersrighttolifesh
ouldbebalancedagainsttheunbornchildsright.Thebalanc
ewas
infavourofthemother.
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Country by Country Chart 541
Israe
l
Nowritten
constitution,butaseriesof
BasicLawsperceivedaschaptersinthefutureconstitu
tion.AtpresenttheBillof
Rights
iscomposed
oftwoBasicLawsenactedin1992:HumanDignityandLiberty,FreedomofOccupation.Theformerexplicitlyprotects
life,bodilyintegrity,dignity,property,pers
onalli
berty,movementandprivacy.Freedomofspeech,association,religionandconscience
andequality
arenotexplicitlyincluded
butcourtstendtotreattheserightsasderivativesofhumandignity.Courtsclaim
juris-
dictiontoreviewprimarylegislationforcompatibilitywiththeseB
asicLaws.
Privatespher
eeffect?
Untilrecently,theassumption,inspiredbytheliberaltr
adition,wasthathumanrightsonlyboundthe
state
andotheradministrativeauth
orities.
BasicLawsprotectmanyrightsandthishasaffectedtheprivatesphere.
Ordin
arytortlawhasalways
beenseenasprotectin
gthemostbasicrights
noteconceptofrightasnot
necessarilyimplyingaspeciallypro
tectedstatus.Tortlawisba
sedonlegislationbutisinspiredbycommonlawtradition.
Thetraditionofanunwritten
constitutionasdevelopedbythecourtshaslong
protectedmanyofthe
usual
rights,butuntiltheenactmen
toftheBasicLawsof1992thecourtshavenot
assertedarighttoinvalidate
actsoftheParliament(Knesse
t).ThetwohumanrightsBasicLawswereinterpretedbytheSupremeC
ourt
asempoweringthecourtstocarryoutjudicialreview
ofprimarylegislation.
ThevaluesimplicitandexplicitintheBasicLawsprovidetheframeworkforthedevelopmentofthecommonlawprotection
ofhum
anrights.
Theeffectofhumanrightsin
theprivatesphereisc
onceptualisedastheco
nstitutionalisationofprivate
lawandtheconstitutionalisatio
nofhumanrights.Fore
xample,itaffectstheba
lancingprocessintortlawby
increa
singtheweightgivento
constitutionalrightsin
thebalance.
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542 Human Rights and the Private Sphere
Theco
mmonviewisthathum
anrightshaveindirecte
ffectintheprivatesphe
reasaresultoftheinfluen
ceof
BasicLa
wsleadingtorights-sympatheticinterpretation
oflegislativetermssuch
aspublicpolicy,unlawfulness
andgoo
dfaith,developmentof
thecommonlawinlin
ewiththevaluesinBa
sicLaws,andthebalan
cing
processwhererightsconflict.
Somejudicialstatementssuggestpossibledirectapplication
ofbasiclawinsomecase
s,e.g.wheretherighttolife
isat
stake,bu
tthedevelopmentofaseparateconstitutionallaw
oftortshasbeenrejectedsofarbecauseofconc
erns
ofover
lapandconflictwithordinarytortlawandtheneedtodevelopanews
etofgeneraldoctrinessuch
ascaus
ation,vicariousliability,
remediesetc.
Courtsrefertovaluessuchasdignity,equalityandnon-discriminationindevelopingthelaw.
Caretakenbycourtstobalance
conflictingprivaterights,andrightsandpublicinte
rests.
Recogn
itionofpowerofprivateactorsgrewwithprivatisationbutthecourtsdo
notusethisasajustificatio
nfor
effectsinprivatelaw.
Develo
pmentofjudge-made,commonlawprinciplessuchasequalityinformjudicialreasoning.
Thecourtsareexplicitaboutim
portanceofrightsfors
ocialvaluessuchassexequalityandnotjusttoindividuals.
Examplesfrom
caselaw
Contra
ctTheprincipleofpublicpolicyhasenabledtheco
urtstoprotectfreedomofoccupation,dignity,freedo
mto
organise
,accesstocourts,non-disc
riminationfromcontractua
linfringements.
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Country by Country Chart 543
Pre-co
ntractarbitraryindividu
alpreferencespermittedin
thenameofcontractualautonomy.Groupdiscriminationin
pre-contractmaybeconsideredunlawfulbadfaithorevena
tortiousbreachoftheBasicLawrighttohumandignity,but
thereisnocaselawoftheSuprem
eCourtonthismatter.
Somes
tatutoryprovisionsprohibitdiscriminationandimplyatortiousrightnottobediscriminatedagainst.Theseare
especiallylawsonemploymentand
accesstopublicservices.BasicLaw:HumanDignityandLibertyhasinspiredthelegislation
ofsomeofthesespecificlaws(for
exampleregardingsexualh
arassment).
Tort
traditionally,tortlawhasbeenperceivedasprotecting
manyhumanrights.
Thebasiclawshaveindirectlyinflu
encedthedevelopmentof
tortlaw,forinstancethecourtsrefertotheimportanceof
autonomy,butnotthroughdirecteffectintheprivatesphere
basiclawsareprobab
lytoovaguetogiverise
toa
constitutionallawoftortsand
directeffectwouldcreatep
roblemsinclashesbetween
individualr
ightsandsocialvalues.
Butthe
basiclawsmayprovideres
idualbasisforliability.
TheBa
sicLawHuman:DignityandLibertyhasinspired
thedevelopmentoftortio
usliabilityforsexualharassment
andunlawfuldiscrimination.
Tortof
breachofstatutoryduty
basiclawrighttodignit
yhasnotbeenappliedsofarasabasisforthiscause
ofaction.Thismayresultalso
fromthevaguenessand
generalityofthedutyimpliedbytheBasicLaw
.
Rights
todamagesforpurelo
ssese.g.pecuniaryandnon
-pecuniarylosses,havebeenextendedtoprovideremedies
forbreachofrighttodignity.
Rightshavebeendevelopedtodamagesforlossofautonomy
anddignitywheninforma
tionhasbeenwithheld
from
apatie
ntmakingadecision.
Righttoreputationisseenasanaspectofdignitybutitdoesnottrumpfr
eespeech,eventhough
free
speechisnotexpresslyprotec
tedinaBasicLaw.
Award
sofcompensationforin
terferencewithdignity,autonomyandequalityintortlawhaveincreased.
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544 Human Rights and the Private Sphere
Italy
WrittenCo
nstitution1948,asamended.BillorRightsincludedintheConstitution.Monistcivillawsystem.
Privatesphereeffect?
TheConstitutionincludesreferen
cestovaluesandprinciplessuchasdignity,andr
ightsandfreedoms,andlists
mostoftheusualcivilandpo
liticalrights(health,reputation,freedomofthoughtetc).TheConstitutionalCourt
haselaboratedontheseand
recognisesconstitution
allyprotectedinterests
.Inviolablerightsdonotinclude
economicfreedomsandthebalancemayfallinfavourofsocialr
ights.
Thesu
premacyofthelegislatoris
regardedasasafeguarda
gainstjudicialsubjectivity.
TheConstitution,since2001,providesforthesupremacyandd
irectapplicationofinternationalconventionsonceratified.
Before,subsequentlyenactedItalianlawswereapttoimpliedly
repealsuchprovisions;this
shouldnotbethecaseany
more,
althoughscholarssharedifferento
pinionsandtheConstitutionalCourthasnotshedanylightonthisissueasyet.O
nthe
otherhand,inmostinstancescourtswillseektointerpretItalianlawcompatiblywithinternationaltreaties.
TheC
onstitutionmakesnoe
xpressprovisionforprivatesphereeffectbutthecourtshavedevelop
edit.
Thereis,however,notmuchcaselawanditisnotabigissuesincetheordinarylawgene
rallyprovidesrightsprotectionin
accord
ancewiththeConstitution.
Allcourtsmayreferissuesto
theConstitutionalCou
rtwhichdecidesuponthe
constitutionalityoflawsortheir
interpr
etation,ratherthanofparticulardecisionsoracts.Ordinarycourtsmayalsointer
pretandapplylawsinconformity
withth
eConstitution.
Inprivatespherecasesthecourts
normallyseektointerpretlawscompatiblywith
theConstitutionmittelbare
Drittw
irkingorindirecteffect-butifthereisalacunain
thelawortheyconside
ritnecessarytheymay
apply
Const
itutionalrightsdirectly
unmittelbareDrittwirk
ung.Thecourtsmayalsorefertointernationaltreaties
andth
ejurisprudenceofinternationalcourtsinaidoftheirinterpretationofordinarylaw.
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Country by Country Chart 545
Develo
pmentofprivatespheree
ffecthasbeeninfluencedb
yjudicialawarenessof
inequalitiesbetweenprivate
partie
s.
Conflictsofrightscaseshavebeenseenbytheord
inarycourtstoinvolve
questionsastowhich
right
trump
sanotherright,andthesecourtsdonotconside
rproportionalityissues,whicharetheconcernofthe
Const
itutionalCourt.
Examplesfrom
caselaw
Employme
nt
Non-unionisedemployeesmayre
lyontherighttofairp
ayundertheConstitution
intheirclaimstotheben
efitof
termsandconditionsagreedwith
employersbytradeunions.
EmployeesmayenforcetheConstitutionalr
ighttoaweekly
dayofrestandannualp
aidholidaysagainstprivateem-
ployers.
Employersmustprotecttheiremployeesfrombullying(mob
bing)andcompensatethembyvirtueoftherighttodignity
underart.2oftheConstitution.
Contracta
ndtortlaw
Theco
urtshavedevelopednew
headsofnon-economiclossorcompensationfornon-pecuniarydamagesin
bothcontractandtortlawandm
aygrantinjunctionsthroughinterpretationofthe
Constitutionandconstitutionally
compatibleinterpretationofthec
ivilcode:hencetheconstitutionalrighttogoodhealthhasgivenrisetoawards
ofcom
pensationforinterferencewiththatrightwhichwasnotformerlyprovidedun
derthecivilcodeasoriginallyin-
terpreted.
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546 Human Rights and the Private Sphere
Freedomofpoliticale
xpressionvspropertyrights
Owner
sofaprivateshoppingcent
rewereorderedtopermit
politicalcampaignerstodistributeleafletsinthecommonar-
eas,an
exampleofunmittelbareDrittwirkungthefreespeechrighttrumpingthepropertyright.
Freedomofexpressionvsreligious
freedomofassociation
Catho
licchurchauthoritiesfr
eedomofreligionentitle
sthemtoapproveornotapprovetheappointmentofteach-
ersortheirdismissalatprivateco
llegesdespitetheinterferencewiththeirfreedomthat
thisinvolves.
Memb
ersofideologicallyorie
ntedassociationsarefr
eetowithdrawfromthe
associationdespiterulestothe
contraryofthatassociation.
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548 Human Rights and the Private Sphere
ThereisdebateaboutwhethertheBORAcompelsright
s-consistentcommonla
worwhetherjudgesshouldonly
applythevaluesoftheBORA
;inpracticethevaluesapproachseemstoapply,butt
heremaybenopracticaldif-
ferenc
eintheoutcomeofeitherapproach.
Examplesfrom
caselaw
Acom
monlawtortofunreasonableinvasionofprivac
ytofillalacunainthecommonlawhasbeendeve
loped
onthe
basis(a)thatitisrequiredbyinternationalconventions,e.g.theICCPR,butthelim
itonfreedomofspeechthatthis
involvesmustbenomorethanare
asonablelimitdemonstrablyjustifiedinafreeanddemo
craticsocietyand(b)thatp
rivacy
isaBO
RAvaluewhichshouldinfo
rmthedevelopmentofthe
commonlawandbegivenappropriateweight.Thecommon
lawsho
uldnotdevelopsoastoinfringerights.Thisisaformofdevelopmentalindirecteffect.
Thelawofdefamationhasbeendevelopedtoprotectth
efreedomofspeechofthepressthroughareasonable
error
defence,relyingonsubstantivecommonlawreasoningleadingtotheconclusio
nthatsuchjudicialdevelopment
wasappropriateratherthanontheBORAtolegitimatethed
evelopment.
Inseveralcasesconfidentialityo
finformationhasbeenr
ecognisedbutdecisions
abouttheawardofrem
edies
havet
akenintoaccountthedefendantsfreedomof
expressionandpublicinterestsintheopennessof
court
proceedings.Thusaninjunctionpreventingthebroadcastofa
(private)confessiontomurderbyapersonacquitted
ofthe
offence
wasrefusedontheground
oflegitimatepublicconcern.
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550 Human Rights and the Private Sphere
Spain
WrittenCo
nstitution1978.Billo
fRightsinTitleIoftheConstitution,especiallyArticles1438.Monistsystem,buttreaty
rights
arenotrem
ediableunlessalsoprotectedintheConstitution.Civillawsystem.
Privatesphereeffect?
Huma
nrightsarebothobjectiveandsubjectiverights.
Althoughthereisnoexpressp
rovisionforhorizontaleffectintheConstitution,itestablishesfreedom,justice
andequalityassuperiorlegal
values.
TheConstitutionalsoprovidesthatcitizensandpublicauthoritiesareallsubjecttotheConstitution.
TheC
onstitutionalCourtmustguaranteerespectfortheconstitution,includin
gfundamentalrightsby,inter
alia,privateparties.Thepublicorprivatenatureoftheallegedviolatorofarigh
tisimmaterial.Thejurisdiction
ofthe
ConstitutionalCourtundertherecursodeamparoto
hearcasesinvolvinghorizo
ntale
ffectrestsonthealle
gation
thattheordinariocourtfailedtofu
lfilitsroleinprotectingrights:itisasupervisoryjurisdiction.Butthisisnotregardedas
making
thehorizontale
ffectindirect,unlikethepositioninG
ermany.
Theeffectofhumanrightsintheprivatesphereisconceptualisedasdirecthorizontal
application.
Butthe
rearedifferencesbetweenobligationsonpublicauthoritiesandprivateparties.E.g.p
ublicauthoritieshavepo
sitive
obliga
tionstorespecttheConstitution,whileprivate
partieshavenegativedu
tiestoabstainfromviolating
theConstitution.
Some
rightsapplyequallyinbothprivaterelationshipsandrelationshipswithpublicbodies(e.g.therightto
strike),othersonlyapplyvertically
,e.g.therighttoafairtrial.Whenprivaterightsclasht
heyhavetobebalanced.
Theco
urtsmustinterprettherig
htssetoutintheConstitu
tioncompatiblywiththein
ternationalinstrumentsto
which
Spainisparty,butarightrecognisedonlyinatreatyand
notintheSpanishCons
titutionasinterpretedbythe
Const
itutionalCourtisnotre
mediable.
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Country by Country Chart 551
There
aredifferentcategorie
sofrightsintheConstitution.Fundamentalrightsenjoystrongerproc
edural
protectionagainstrepealoramen
dmentthanconstitution
alrights.Muchimportanceisattachedtofactthatn
either
setof
rightsrequiresimplementinglegislation,andtothedifferencesbetweenthejurisdictionoftheord
inario
courtsandtherecursodeamp
aroinrelationtorights.
OnlytheConstitutionalCour
t,towhichsuchissuesm
aybereferred,mayinv
alidatealawthatiscon
trary
tothe
Constitution.Apartfrom
thattheordinariocourtshavejurisdictiontohearchallengestodecisionsandactionsin
rightscases,andappealliesfromt
hemtotherecursodeamparo,inbothverticalandhorizontaleffecthumanrightscases.
Allco
urtsmustinterpretlawssoastobecompatible
withtherightssetout
intheConstitution.The
reare
noseparatespecialisedcourtsdealingwithconstitutionalissues.Thisisdifferentfromthe
positioninGermanywhere
issues
ofhum
anrightsintheprivatespheremaynotbereferredto
theConstitutionalCourt/B
undesverfassungsgeright.
Examplesfrom
caselaw
Employmentlawdismissalo
faworkerforpublicly
criticisinghisemployer
involvedabalancingofth
eem-
ployeesconstitutionalrighttofreedomofexpressionagainst
theemployersinterests.Th
eemployeemustactingoo
dfaith
butwa
snotsubjecttoagenericdutyofloyalty.Hisrightswereonlytobemodifiedtotheextentstrictlynecessaryforthe
correctandefficientdevelopment
oftheemployersproductiveactivity.
Dismis
salforlegalexerciseofafundamentalrightwouldbeu
nfairandunlawful.
Thebu
rdenliesontheemployertojustifytherestrictionofanemployeesright.
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552 Human Rights and the Private Sphere
UnitedStates
WrittenCo
nstitution1787.Billo
fRigh
tsaddedtotheConstitutionbyConstitutionalAmen
dments1791.Dualistsyste
m.All
stateshaveacommonlawsystemexceptLouisiana(civillaw).Fede
rallawisbasedonthetextoftheConstitution,statutes.
Privatespher
eeffect?
TheC
onstitutiononlyproscribesstateactionthatbreachesconstitutionalrights.Individualsarenotdirectly
boundtohonourconstitutionalrights.Somecaselawsuggeststhatthefactthatacourtenforcesaprivaterightinvolves
stateaction.
Some
indirecthorizontaleffec
torimpactofconstitut
ionalrightsonprivatep
ersonsdoesexist;e.g.if
state
respon
sibilitieshavebeendelegatedtoorassumedbyprivatebodies,iftherewasstateinvolvementinprivateaction,
orstatutoryauthorityfororapprovalo
finfringements.
Thereissomestrongindirecth
orizontaleffectonthecommonlaw.
ThetextoftheConstitution
isexplicitthatitisb
indingonlyongovernm
entandpublicauthorities.
Individualsarenotdirectlyboundtohonourconstitutionalrightsassuch.
Complexandconfusingareaoflaw
withstrongdissentsinsomecaseswherestateactionw
asnotfound.Strongresistance
tohor
izontaleffectofconstitutionalrightsintheabsenceofstateaction.Butsom
everyartificialorstrained
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Country by Country Chart 553
reasoningtryingtoreconcile
stateactionrequireme
ntwithprotectionofconstitutionalrightsinprivate
relationshipsin,e.g.,
ShelleyvKra
emerandNYTvSullivan.
Examplesfrom
caselaw
Acom
panytownmaynotbant
hedistributionofreligiousliteratureonitspavements
(MarshvAlabama).
Apriv
atelyownedshoppingm
allmayforbidmeetingsan
dleafletingonitspremises
(HudgensvNLRB).
Court
enforcementofabreachofconstitutionalrights,e.g.adiscriminato
ryrestrictivecovenant,may
count
asstateactionthusgivin
grisetorightsprotection.(ShelleyvKraemer).
State
commonlaworstatuto
ryrules,e.g.relibellaw
s,mayberegardedass
tateactionwhichbrings
inthe
protectionofconstitutionalr
ights
.Thisapproachhassurfacedinfreespeechcases.Itisstrongindirecthorizontaleffect
(NYTv
Sullivan).
Saleof
goodsunderaliendoesnotamounttoabreachofdueprocessrights,evenifthereisstatutoryprovision
which
couldhave,butdidnot,provideprotectionfortheowner(Fla
ggBrosvBrooks).
Failurebysocialservicestoprotectachildfromviolen
cebyaparentdoesnotam
ounttostateaction(DeSh
aneyv
Winnebago).
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554 Human Rights and the Private Sphere
EuropeanConvention
onHumanRights
Privatesphereeffect?
Proced
ures:ByArticle34ECHR
complaintsmayonlybemadetotheECHRaboutviolationsbytheContractingP
arties,
andnotthereforebyprivatepartie
sstateactiondoctrine
.Butdirectstateresponsibilityextendstobreachesbyprivate
parties
insomeinstances,forinstanceifthebodyisexercisingapublicfunction.
Evenif
theconductcomplainedofasaviolationofaConventionrightemanatesfromapurelyprivatebody,thestatemay
beunderapositiveobligationunderArticle1tosecuretheclaimantsrights,e.g.byachangeinthelawand/orcompensation.
ThepositiveobligationsdoctrinedevelopedbytheEuropeanCourtofHumanRights
introducedindirecthoriz
ontal
effect
tothesubstantiveprovisio
nsintheECHRintheCon
tractingStates.Itrecognise
sthatnotonlydostates
have
negativeobligationsnottointer
ferewithrights,butalsoob
ligationstosecurethatrightsareeffectivelyprot
ected
evenagainstinterferencebyp
rivateparties.
Theproportionalitytestisconcernedwithwhetherthestatehasbeenguiltyofexcessiveinactioninfailing
topro
tecttherightinquestion,andisdesignedtoachieveafairbalancebetweencom
petingrightsandpublicinterests;
thesecondparainArticles811w
illberelevant.Statesenjoy
awidemarginofappreciationhere.
TheE
CHRhaslaiddownprinciplesforbalancingcompetingrightsandpublicinterestswhichineffecttran
spose
theve
rticalprocesstothehorizontalsphere.
TheEC
HRrequiresthecourtsofContractingStatestointe
rpretprivatelawinstru
ments(e.g.wills)comp
atibly
witht
heConvention,whichis
alivinginstrumentthe
interpretationofwhich
maychangeovertime.
ThefollowingConventionrightshavebeenextendedto
theprivatesphere:freedomofassemblyandassoci-
ation,
privateandfamilylife,r
ighttoproperty,andtheunqualifiedrightstolife,freedomfromtortur
eand
expulsion,prohibitionofslaveryandforcedlabour,protectionfromunlawfuldetention.
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Country by Country Chart 555
Ineach
instancethestatemayb
eunderobligationstoprovideprotectionsaga
instprivateinterference,for
instancebytheprovisionofprotectivelegislationand
criminalandcivillawen
forcementmeasures.
Examplesfrom
caselaw
Righttoproperty/positiveobligation
Housesdestroyedbyalandslidecausedbyanexplosion
inarubbishtip.Thedomesticcourtrefusedcompensation.
Heldthatthestateshouldtakepositivemeasuresofprotectio
nwherethereisadirectlinkbetweenthemeasureswhich
anapplicantmaylegitimatelyexpectfromtheauthoritiesand
hiseffectiveenjoymentofh
ispossessions.
Privatelife/compatibleinterpretatio
nofprivatelawinstruments
Awillp
rovidedthatpropertycouldonlybeinheritedbyasonofalegitimateandcanonicalmarriage.Thedomestic
court
heldthatthisdisqualifiedanadoptedchild.Held,thewillshouldbeinterpretedcompatiblywithArticle8.An
issue
ofinterferencewithprivateandfam
ilylifecouldonlyariseund
ertheConventionifthenationalcourtsassessme
ntof
thefac
tsordomesticlawwere
manifestlyunreasonableorarbitraryorblatan
tlyinconsistentwiththe
fun-
damen
talprinciplesoftheConvention.Therewasnothin
gintherelevantwillsuggestingthatthewordsonindicated
onlybio
logicalsonsorthatthetestatorintendedtoexcludeadoptedgrandchildrenfrominheritingherproperty.Inexercising
itsEuropeansupervisoryrole,
theCourtcouldnotremainpassivewhereana
tionalcourtsinterpretation
ofalegalactappearedunreasonable,arbitraryor,asintheapplicantscase,blatantlyinconsistentwiththe
prohib
itionofdiscrimination
establishedbyArticle
14andmorebroadlywiththeprinciplesunderlyin
gthe
Conven
tion.Thedomesticcourtsinterpretationamountedtothejudicialdeprivationofan
adoptedchildsinheritancerights.
(Butthisapproachinterfereswiththetestatorsrights,apoint
thatledonejudgetoadissentingopinion.)
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556 Human Rights and the Private Sphere
Competing
rightstoprivacyandfreespeech/balancingpro
cess
VonHa
nnover:Thepresspublishedphotosofapublicfigureinaneverydaysituation.Thedomesticcourtrefusedaninju
nction
forinvasionofprivacyonthegro
undthatthepublichadalegitimateinterestinthelifeofapublicfigure.Heldth
atthe
respon
dentstatedidnotfulfilits
obligationtosecureth
eapplicantsrighttore
spectforherprivatelifeand
correspondence.TherehadconsequentlybeenaviolationofA
rticle8.Thedomesticcourthadnotstruckafairba
lance
betweenthecompetingrightsandthepublicinterest.Photogra
phswereaparticularlyobjectionableintrusionintopriva
telife.
Thebalancingofthetwocompetin
grightsrequiredconsidera
tionalsoofthecontributionthatthepublishedphoto-
graphsandarticlesmadetoa
debateofgeneralinterest,inthiscasenone.Iftherehadbeenalegitimate
pub-
licinterestintheinformation,itshouldyieldtotheclaimantsrighttoprivacy
sincesheexercisednopublic
function.Shehadalegitimateexpectationthatherp
rivacywouldbeprotectedbylaw.
Craxi:O
nthereportingofprivateconversationsofpublicfigurestheCourtheldthatevenpublicfigureshavethe
right
torespectfortheirprivatelivesandconversationsofapurelyprivatenatureshouldnothavebeenpublished.
Public
ationbythepressdidnotcorrespondtoapressingsocialneed.Therefore,theinterferencewiththe
appli-
cantsrightsunderArticle81oftheConventionwasnotproportionatetothelegitimateaimswhichcouldhave
beenpursuedandwasconsequentlynotnecessaryinade
mocraticsociety.
Righttoprotestvspropertyright/thebalance
Appleby:ownerofaprivateshop
pingmallrefusedtoallow
theapplicanttosetupastallandcanvaspoliticalv
iews.Held,
freedomofexpressionwasnotunlimited.Thepropertyrightsoftheowneroftheshoppingcentrealsohadtobe
taken
intoco
nsideration.Ifabaronaccesstopropertywere
toresultinthelackofanyeffectiveexerciseoffree-
domofexpressionapositive
obligationcouldarisefo
rthestatetoprotecttheenjoymentofConve
ntion
rights
byregulatingproperty
rights.Buttheapplicants
hadalternativemeansofc
ommunicatingtheirviewstothe
public.TheCourtdidnotfindthatthegovernmenthadfailedtocomplywithanypositiveo
bligationtoprotecttheapplicants
freedomofexpression.
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Country by Country Chart 557
Positiveobligationsandqualifiedrights
Freedomo
fassociationandassembly
Wheredomesticlegislationauthorisesinterferencew
ithemployeesfreedom
ofassociationbyemployers,
asinc
losedshoplegislation,stateresponsibilityiseng
aged.
Theprincipleofpositiveobligationsimposesarequiremento
nstateauthoritiestoensurethattheparticipantsin
apeacefuldemonstrationare
notsubjectedtophysicalviolencebycounter-demonstrators.
Respectforfamilylife
Thestatewillbeunderapositive
obligationtoensurethat
aparentisnotdeprive
dofcontactwithchildrenby
theot
herparent.
Where
familylifeisdisruptedbypr
ivatelygeneratednighttime
noisepollution,thestatem
aybeliablefornotenfo
rcing
noisereductionlawstoprotectthefamily.
Positiveobligationsandunqualified
rights
Righttolife
Inadditiontotheobligationtoimplementpreventivemeasurestoensuretheprotection
oflifewithinastatesjurisd
iction,
thereisanadditionalobligation
toconductaneffectiveinvestigationintolossesoflifeandpunishpr
ivate
individualsandothernon-stateactorsthatarefoundrespo
nsible.
TheEC
HRimposesadutyonastatetosecuretherighttolifebyputtinginplaceeffectivecriminallawprovisions
todete
rthecommissionofoffences,backedupbylawenforcem
entmachineryforthepreve
ntion,suppressionandpunishment
ofbrea
chesofsuchprovisions.