SRF Roadmap – part 1, road freight transport in the UK
Technical Report CUED/C-SRF/TR.1 Piecyk M., A. McKinnon
Piecyk M., A. McKinnon†
SRF Roadmap - part 1, road freight transport in the UK
Technical Report: CUED/C-SRF/TR.1
2013
ISSN Number: 2054-4081
Centre for Sustainable Road Freight
Department of Engineering
University of Cambridge
Trumpington Street
Cambridge
CB2 1PZ
† Heriot-Watt University
Edinburgh Campus
Edinburgh
EH14 4AS
www.sustainableroadfreight.org.uk
Supported by
© Copyright Centre for Sustainable Road Freight, 2013.
3
Tableofcontents:
1. The importance of logistics and road freight to a national economy ................................................. 4
2. Contribution to business competitiveness ......................................................................................... 5
3. Employment in logistics ...................................................................................................................... 6
4. UK freight transport activity ................................................................................................................ 7
4.1. HGV fleet ................................................................................................................................... 9
4.2. Number of HGV operators in the UK .......................................................................................10
5. Sustainability of the UK road freight transport sector ...................................................................... 11
5.1. Greenhouse gas emissions from road freight transport ............................................................ 12
5.2. Demand for road freight transport ............................................................................................ 13
5.3. Economic Activity and Road Freight Traffic Growth .................................................................. 14
5.4. Green Logistics Framework ........................................................................................................ 16
5.5. Modal split .................................................................................................................................. 17
5.6. Supply chain structure ................................................................................................................ 17
5.6.1. Handling factor .................................................................................................................... 18
5.6.2. Average length of haul ........................................................................................................ 19
5.7. Vehicle utilisation ....................................................................................................................... 22
5.7.1. Empty running ..................................................................................................................... 22
5.7.2. Lading factor ....................................................................................................................... 24
5.8. Fuel management ...................................................................................................................... 26
5.8.1. Fuel efficiency ..................................................................................................................... 26
5.8.2. Carbon intensity ................................................................................................................. 28
6. Traffic accidents ................................................................................................................................ 29
7. Conclusions ....................................................................................................................................... 30
References ............................................................................................................................................ 32
4
1. Theimportanceoflogisticsandroadfreighttoanationaleconomy
The global ratio of trade to GDP, commonly referred to as a measure of the openness of economies,
has increased from 39% in 1990 to 59% in 2011 (World Economic Forum, 2013). The expansion of
global trade requires efficient logistics to facilitate the exponential growth in international and
national freight movements. 'Logistics is a critical service without which global supply chains would
not be viable. The lower the costs and the greater the quality of services provided by logistics
companies, the better off customers and consumers' (World Economic Forum, 2013, p.6).
Recently, the UK government’s Logistics Growth Review asserted that ‘the logistics sector is a hugely
important part of the UK economy’ (Department for Transport, 2011, p.4). There is recognition,
therefore, in government circles that the business of distributing goods, so often taken for granted
by the public, is vital to our economic well‐being. The main way in which economists have measured
this importance is by estimating total national expenditure on logistics and expressing this figure as a
percentage of gross domestic product (GDP) or gross value added (GVA). The freight transport,
warehousing and cargo handling sectors (excluding postal and courier services) in the UK, had
33,437 companies operating in 2010, with a turnover of nearly £41 billion and an approximate GVA
of £17 billion – 1.3% and 1.7% of the total economy respectively (ONS, 2013a). The annual turnover
of the road freight transport industry in 2011 was over £22 billion (Table 1), still well below the 2008
figure but steadily rising.
Year Turnover (£million)
Approximate GVA at basic prices (£ million)
GVA per employee (£)
2008 26,298 11,376 40,600
2009 20,913 9,509 30,200
2010 21,116 9,752 39,300
2011 22,575 9,906 39,300Table 1. Economic outputs of the UK's road freight industry, 2008‐2011
Source: ONS, 2013a
In 2010, road accounted for 74% of the UK's freight transport sector turnover and 81% of its GVA (Table 2).
UK's freight transport , 2010
Turnover (£million)
Approximate GVA at basic prices (£ million)
Road 21,116 9,752
Waterborne 5,204 1,295
Air 889 291
Rail 749 356
Pipeline 606 341 Table 2. Economic outputs of the UK's freight transport industry, 2010
Source: ONS, 2013a
In the UK, lorries deliver 4.1 million tonnes of freight daily, equivalent to 65 kg per person. McKinnon
(2006a) illustrates the devastating consequences of a major road freight transport disruption to the
UK economy (Table 3). A week‐long shut‐down of the road freight system would result in a serious
5
economic and social crisis. Furthermore, once the trucks are back on roads, it would take several
weeks for most production and distribution systems to recover.
Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 All movements of trucks over 3.5 tonnes cease at 12am
Most mail services and parcel deliveries stop
No newspapers
Manufacturers operating on just‐in‐time basis suspend operations
No supplies of fresh produce in grocery outlets
Supermarket stocks of many perishable / short shelf‐life products run out, including bread, milk and eggs
Milk disposal on farms
More manufacturing in low‐inventory sectors closes down
Shortage of cash in ATMs
Construction work ceases on most building sites
Growth of farmers' markets
Most petrol stations run out of fuel
Around 15% of the car fleet without fuel
Supermarket stocks of fast‐moving grocery lines exhausted
Introduction of rationing for fuel and some food products
Fast food outlets close
Widespread lay‐offs from manufacturing sector
Busier pubs run out of beer
Slaughter of poultry on farms
Petrol stations run dry
Most of the manufacturing sector shut‐down
Most of non‐electrified rail services suspended
Serious cash shortages
Bus companies reduce off‐peak frequencies, esp. in rural areas
Gas and water utilities disrupted by lack of fuel and spare parts
Congestion at ports stops off‐loading of vessels
Half of the car fleet without fuel
Large proportion of the labour force laid‐off or unable to travel to work
Retail stocks of most grocery products exhausted
Almost all manufacturing closes down
Severe disruption of the health service
Serious problems from the accumulation of waste
Range of non‐food products in shops substantially depleted
Table 3.Possible effects of the truck stoppage over the first five days Source: McKinnon, 2006a
2. ContributiontobusinesscompetitivenessThe available benchmark data suggests that the UK as a whole has a strong logistics capability by
comparison with other countries. It was rated 10th out of 155 countries in the latest Logistics
Performance Indicator (LPI) survey conducted by the World Bank (2012). In the World Economic
Forum's (2012) Enabling Trade Index report, UK was rated 11th out of 132 countries. In terms of the
sub‐indices of ‘availability and quality of transport infrastructure’ and ‘availability and quality of
transport services’ it achieved 9th and 7th positions, respectively. DHL (2012) has also compared
countries in terms of their ‘ global connectedness’, defined as ‘the depth and breadth of a country's
integration with the rest of the world as manifest by its participation in international flows of
products and services, capital, information, and people’ (p.13). The UK performed even better
against this survey gaining 6th place out of the 140 countries analysed in the report. While the
connectedness index is not solely logistics‐oriented, one of its key components are merchandise
trade flows (26% of the final score). Freight transport and logistics are the key enablers of these
flows and, thus, indirectly, contribute to the UK's high ranking.
Kim and Min (2011) investigate whether some countries achieve logistical efficiency at the cost of
the environmental performance. They propose the Green Logistics Performance Index (GLPI), a
combination of the World Bank’s Logistics Performance Index (LPI) and the World Economic Forum’s
Environmental Performance Index (EPI). The GLPI is suggested as an indicator of a country’s green
logistics efficiency, reflecting the impact of logistics competitiveness on the environment. United
Kingdom was ranked 14th out of 146 countries for which both the 2010 LPI and EPI data was
available. The UK’s consistently high LPI (10th) and GLPI (14th) scores demonstrate high logistics
service standards that suggest that maintaining high logistics service standards do not necessarily
have an adverse effect on environmental performance of the economy.
6
3. EmploymentinlogisticsThe logistics sector offers a range of occupations including Heavy Goods Vehicles (HGV, defined as a
lorry with a gross weight in excess of 3.5 tonnes) and van drivers, transport, purchasing and
warehouse managers and supervisors, operators of handling equipment, warehouse staff,
employees in rail‐, sea‐ and air‐freight operations, and a range of related office jobs. In 2011, there
were 33,402 companies operating in freight transport, warehousing and cargo handling sectors
(excluding postal and courier services) in the UK, 29,172 of which operated primarily in road
transport (ONS, 2013a). It has been estimated that in 2013, nearly 1.6 million people worked in the
logistics‐related occupations across the UK. This accounts for over 5% of the UK's workforce (Table
4).
Employment (thousands)
Purchasing managers 49
Transport and distribution managers 75
Storage and warehouse managers 102
Importers, exporters 11
HGV drivers (driving vehicles over 7.5 tonnes) 259 HGV & Van drivers (driving vehicles up to 7.5 tonnes) 210
Elementary storage occupations 400
Fork‐lift truck drivers 93
Transport and distribution clerks 60
Stock control clerks 82 Buyers and procurement officers 66Post worker, mail sorter or courier 178
Total 1,586Table 4. Logistics‐related employment in the United Kingdom, 2013
Source: ONS, 2013a
Between 2008 and 2011 the number of enterprises operating in road freight sector declined by 10%
(ONS, 2013a). The road freight industry is heavily skewed towards family‐owned and micro
businesses (Table 5). Companies with up to four employees account for 76% of all enterprises in the
sector (as opposed to 68% for the whole economy). This is mainly due to the nature of the industry,
where drivers often own their vehicles, obtain licenses, register as transport operators and manage
their business on their own or with few employees (Skills for Logistics, 2013a).
Size of company
% of companies
0‐4 76%
5‐9 11%
10‐19 7%
20‐49 4%
50‐99 2%
100‐249 1%
250+ <0.5%
Total 100%Table 5. Size of road freight transport companies in the UK
Source: ONS, quoted in Skills for Logistics, 2013a
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There were 469,009 HGV and van drivers in 2013. These two occupations account for nearly 2% of
the UK's total employment. Road freight transport is traditionally male‐dominated, with a negligible
proportion of female drivers. According to Skills for Logistics (2013a), there is evidence of an aging
workforce within the driving industry, with 60% of large HGV and 49% of smaller HGV and van
drivers aged 45 and over. Only 2% of large vehicle and 6% of drivers operating vehicles up to 7.5
tonnes are under 25 years old, partly because of the high cost of insuring drivers in this age group.
Drivers tend to work full‐time and are prevalently employed (rather than self‐employed). Although
the recent economic crisis has largely eliminated the problem of a shortfall of qualified professional
drivers, it is expected to re‐emerge following the general economic recovery. The effects of a limited
number of young workers entering the sector (Table 6) are likely to be further exacerbated by a
mismatch between the competencies offered by workforce and the professional skills required by
companies (Skills for Logistics, 2012).
HGV Drivers(vehicles over 7.5 tonnes)
HGV & Van Drivers (vehicles up to 7.5 tonnes)
Female 1% 5%
Under 25 years old 2% 6%
Over 45 years old 60% 49%
Part‐time 5% 24%
Self‐employed 9% 11%
Average weekly hours 48 43.9
Average salary £25,982 p.a. £19,518 p.a.
Salary range £17,681 ‐ £34,302 £13,238 ‐ £30,725Table 6. HGV & van drivers – population characteristics
Source: Skills for Logistics, 2013b, 2013c
4. UKfreighttransportactivityThe amount of freight transport activity can be measured in three ways (McKinnon and Piecyk,
2012):
Tonnes‐lifted: this is a measure of the weight of goods loaded onto vehicles, rail‐wagons,
ships or planes at the start of a journey. As the movement of products from their first point
of production to their final point of sale comprises several journeys there is multiple
counting of the goods as they pass along the supply chain. The final tonnes‐lifted figure is
therefore much larger than the physical quantity of goods produced and consumed in the
country, but, in the short to medium term, the tonnes‐lifted statistic is quite a good
barometer of changes in the level of economic activity.
Tonne‐kms: this is a composite measure that takes account of both the weight transported
and the distance moved. Like the tonnes‐lifted statistic it is subject to multiple counting.
Overall, it is considered a better measure of the amount of work done by the freight
transport sector and correlates more closely with transport expenditure and energy use. It is
by far the most widely collected and analysed freight transport statistic.
Vehicle‐kms: this indicates the amount of vehicle movement but takes no account of the
quantity of freight moved. It is also a statistic that is only available for road transport: no
published statistics exist on the numbers of train‐km, ship‐km or plane‐km moving freight.
The totabillion toback to tnearly 2
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12
stics‐related
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based on th
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to reduce it
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In 2008 the
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t since at le
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ng at least so
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as the data is nclass, in ord
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rt activity
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2008 and
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The GHG
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the GHG
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5.2.DeFigure 9
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shift fro
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ents perform
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ained above,
kms are deriv
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ht transport
eight‐based a
rry traffic to
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m heavy ind
n tonne‐kms
nd tonne‐km
tor has been
in large a
med by small
Figure 8. G
rroadfretrends in roa
tonnes lifte
ved by multi
ent the total
activity, bot
and take no
o move 100
anges in the
dustry to the
s and vehicle
trends with
n primarily d
articulated t
er rigid lorrie
GHG intensity
eighttranad tonne‐kms
ed are derive
plying the w
distance tra
th tonnes‐lift
account of
tonnes of a
e average de
manufactur
‐kms. Theref
some consid
13
driven by th
trucks. Over
es has fluctu
y of road freigh
nsports, tonnes lift
ed by adding
weight of a lo
avelled by HG
ted and tonn
the cubic vo
low density
ensity of fre
re of lighter c
fore it is imp
deration of v
he improvem
r the same
uated betwee
ht movement
ted and vehic
g together th
oad by the di
GVs in a give
ne‐kms have
olume of goo
y product lik
eight throug
consumer go
portant to su
vehicle‐kms t
ments in the
period, th
en 0.24‐0.25
s in the UK
cle kms betw
he weight of
stance over
en year. As m
e one major
ods moved.
e clothing th
h time, refle
oods, can dis
pplement th
trends.
carbon effic
e GHG inte
kg CO2e/ton
ween 1980 a
all the loads
which it was
measures of
limitation –
It clearly tak
han a dense
ecting for ex
stort the rela
he analysis of
ciency of
ensity of
nne‐km.
nd 2010.
s carried.
s hauled.
the level
they are
kes much
e product
xample a
ationship
f tonnes‐
There w
when th
Since 19
Tonnes
distance
continue
from 20
2010 HG
billion) a
negative
is impor
of freigh
5.3.EcHistorica
Gross D
explain t
generate
a derive
determi
at differ
differen
While ec
transpor
growth w
This hig
transpor
Figu
were 90 billio
he freight tr
992 the roa
lifted and v
e travelled b
ed to grow u
07, resulting
GV tonne‐km
and vehicle
e social and e
rtant to unde
ht transport s
conomicAally, there h
Domestic Pro
the relations
ed by other
ed demand.
ne the dema
rent stages
ces in GDP e
conomic gro
rt reduce th
without facin
hly desired a
rt activity is c
ure 9. Trends
on tonne‐km
ransport act
d freight to
vehicle kms
by lorries st
until 2007. T
g from the re
ms rose by 5
kms by 18%
environment
erstand the u
sector in the
Activityanas been a c
oduct (GDP)
ship betwee
economic ac
Thus, chang
and for freig
of developm
explained 89%
wth increase
hat welfare.
ng the negat
ability of an
commonly re
in tonne‐kms
Source: Depa
ms performed
tivity contrac
onne‐kms ro
had follow
tabilised bet
The 2008 an
ecent slowdo
54% (from 9
% (from 16 to
tal impacts a
underlying ca
e future.
ndRoadFlose relation
) and freigh
en GDP and f
ctivities and,
ges in the p
ht transport
ment undert
% of the vari
es the welfa
Thus, the
tive side effe
economy to
eferred to as
14
, tonnes lifted
artment for Tr
d by HGVs in
cted followi
se again un
wed a very s
tween 2002
d 2009 data
own in the e
0 to 139 bil
o 19 billion)
associated w
auses of this
FreightTrnship betwe
ht transport
freight volum
, as such, can
production a
. Indeed, a c
taken by th
iation in road
re of a count
question o
ects of transp
o grow witho
s ‘decoupling
d and vehicle
ransport, 2012
n 1980. This
ng the econ
ntil 2007, wh
similar patte
2 and 2007
for all indic
conomic act
lion), tonne
. As freight
with it are ve
s growth to i
rafficGrowen economi
growth. Th
mes often re
n be describ
and consump
cross‐section
e World Ba
d tonne‐kms
try, external
f how a co
port growth
out a corres
g’.
kms, 1980 – 2
2
had been in
nomic down
hen they pe
ern until ea
since then,
cators show
tivity. Overal
s lifted by 1
transport ac
ry likely to w
mprove the
wthc growth (ty
he underlyin
efers to the f
ed as ‘a seco
ption of goo
nal study of t
ank using 19
s (Bennathan
ities associat
untry can e
is receiving
sponding inc
2010
ncreasing un
turn in earl
eaked at 157
rly 2000s. T
while tonn
a downward
ll, between 1
13% (from 1
ctivity is inte
worsen too.
overall susta
ypically mea
ng rationale
fact that tra
ond‐order ac
ods and serv
hirty‐three c
989 data fou
n et al., 1992
ted with roa
experience e
increasing a
rease in roa
ntil 1990,
y 1990s.
7 billion.
The total
nes lifted
d change
1980 and
.3 to 1.5
ensifying,
Hence, it
ainability
asured as
used to
nsport is
ctivity’ or
vices will
countries
und that
2).
ad freight
economic
ttention.
d freight
In terms
Union a
GDP and
GDP.
Figure 1
relations
there h
moveme
only 5%
UK econ
freight t
help to
the Briti
The pot
Governm
most re
prematu
s of freight t
s a whole, w
d, in fact, in
S
10 shows th
ship was rela
as been a p
ent. Betwee
. If this deco
nomy, in whi
traffic volum
promote the
sh Governm
S
tential for
ment over th
ecent eviden
ure (McKinno
transport in
where there
n some of th
Figure 10
ource: Departm
he relations
atively stable
pronounced
n 1997 and
oupling were
ich increasin
mes. Stabilisa
e sustainable
ent and Euro
Figure 11. G
ource: Departm
decoupling
he last decad
nce suggests
on et al., 20
general, the
is a continu
he countries
. Decoupling of
ment for Transp
hip betwee
e until the la
decoupling
2007, GDP r
e to continue
ng national p
tion and sub
e developme
opean Union
GDP and HGV to
ment for Transp
economic
de. Nonethe
s that expe
008). In 2007
15
e UK case is
uous strong
freight tran
f economic grow
port, 2012, Offic
n UK GDP
ate 1990s. Th
of econom
rose by 37%
e, it would i
prosperity wo
bsequent red
ent policy an
n.
onne‐kms: annu
port, 2012, Offic
growth has
less, it is que
ctations of
7, after more
different fro
link betwee
sport is grow
wth and freight
ce for National
and road fr
he recent exp
mic growth a
in real term
ndicate a lon
ould not gen
duction in fr
d sustainabl
ual growth rate
ce for National
s been reco
estionable if
the long‐te
e than 10 ye
om the situat
en freight tra
wing at a m
t transport
Statistics, 2013
reight move
perience, ho
and the gro
ms while road
ng‐term stru
nerate a pro
eight‐related
e logistics st
s, 2007‐2010
Statistics, 2013
ognised and
f this trend is
rm decoupl
ears in whic
tion in the E
ansport dem
much faster r
3b
ements. Ove
owever, sugg
owth in road
d tonne‐kms
uctural chang
portional inc
d externalitie
trategy advo
3b
d promoted
s going to en
ing may ha
h the annua
European
mand and
rate than
erall, this
gests that
d freight
grew by
ge in the
crease in
es would
ocated by
by the
ndure, as
ave been
al growth
16
rates for road tonne‐kms were lower than that of GDP, the two rates converged again at 3% (Figure
11). Also, the effect of the recent economic downturn is clearly visible in 2008 and 2009 data,
leading to a contraction of the road freight market at a greater rate than the economy in general.
Conversely, in 2010, road tonne‐km grew by 11% on the previous year, whereas GDP increased by a
marginal 2%.
Overall, there is evidence of long term decoupling of GDP and tonne‐km trends, although, at
present, its potential to contribute to the long‐term environmental sustainability of road freight
transport remains uncertain. The current instability of the domestic and international freight
markets is most likely to affect also data sets in the near future, temporarily distorting longer‐term
decoupling trend. It is expected, however, that while the economy gradually recovers, the level of
GDP growth will continue to outpace the increase in the freight traffic volumes.
McKinnon (2007a) carried out a comprehensive assessment of possible causes of the decoupling of
GDP and road freight transport in the UK and their relative importance. Based on the available data:
increased penetration of UK haulage market by foreign operators explained 33% of the
observed decoupling2;
decline in road’s share of the freight market explained a further 22%;
increase in the real cost of road freight transport explained 12%;
Diminishing rate of spatial concentration, erosion of industrial activity to other countries, increasing
share of service activities in the composition of GDP, and the geographical location of the country
limiting the amount of European transit freight movements, were also believed to have a ‘very
significant’ (even though impossible to quantify) impact.
In conclusion, McKinnon (2007a) suggested that although the signs of decoupling are encouraging
and definitely in the right direction, “the recent decline in the road tonne‐km intensity of the UK
economy will need to be supplemented by further reductions in empty running, higher vehicle load
factors, improvements in fuel efficiency, tightening emission controls and a continuing modal shift to
rail and water” (p.61).
5.4.GreenLogisticsFrameworkAlthough the signs of decoupling are a positive development, it can be argued that explaining the
growth in road freight transport and related CO2 emissions solely in terms of underlying economic
growth or other industrial indices is not sufficient to be able to target the problem effectively. There
is a need for a framework providing an understanding of how changes in logistics systems can help
to break the link between economic growth and road freight transport‐related GHG emissions. The
structure of freight transport growth in Europe has changed in the last few decades and this change
relates to “the logistically induced demand for transport, especially the increase in flexibility of the
production and distribution structures” (Drewes‐Nielsen et al., 2003, p.295). Thus, there is a strong
need to disaggregate the relationship between GDP and road tonne‐kms into a series of logistical
variables to enable an in‐depth analysis of the underlying causes of freight traffic growth (McKinnon
and Woodburn, 1996).
2 Foreign vehicle activity is not recorded in the Continuous Survey of Road Goods Transport (CSRGT) survey, the key source of tonnes-lifted and tonne-kms data.
The rela
emission
ationship bet
ns is determ
Modal split
different mo
Handling fac
Average len
journey
Lading facto
carried if, w
terms)
Empty runn
Fuel efficien
Carbon inte
W
tra
Ro
W
pro
Fu
tween econo
ined by seve
t – represen
odes of trans
ctor – indica
ngth of hau
or – the ratio
whenever lo
ing – the pro
ncy – express
nsity of fuel
Weight of go
ansported by
oad tonnes l
Weight of go
duced / con
Road tonn
kilometre
Total vehic
kilometre
uel consump
GHG emissio
omic output,
en key variab
nts the divi
sport
tes the num
l –the avera
o of what a
aded, it wa
oportion of t
sed as distan
– the amou
Figure 12.
oods
y road
lifted
oods
sumed
e‐
es
cle
es
ption
outputs
ons
17
the demand
bles (Figure 1
sion of the
ber of links i
age distance
HGV actually
as loaded to
total vehicle
nce travelled
nt of CO2e e
Green logistics
Mod
Handlin
Averag
of
Lading
Empty
Fuel ef
Carbon
of
key va
d for road fre
12):
tonnes or
in a supply c
e each unit
y carried to
o its maximu
kms run wit
per a unit o
mitted per u
framework
al split
ng factor
ge length
haul
g factor
running
fficiency
intensity
fuel
ariables
eight transpo
tonne‐kms
hain
of freight is
the maximu
um carrying
hout a load
of fuel used (e
unit of fuel u
V
ut
Sup
st
man
ort, and rela
transported
s moved on
um that it co
capacity (in
e.g. mpg)
sed
Vehicle
tilisation
pply chain
tructure
Fuel
nagement
ated GHG
d by the
a single
ould have
n weight
consum
only a m
recent r
handling
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the mid‐
supply c
number
points h
The incr
the follo
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
ed within an
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reduction to
g factors for
So
ndling factors
ndling factor
‐1990s and t
chains serve
of links in t
ave started t
reasing num
owing develo
Developmen
maintain ve
more consig
those of oth
and‐spoke n
of links in th
Growth of o
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landfill, new
Insertion o
consumptio
insertion of
Vertical dis
outsourced
facilities in t
n economy.
ncrease from
707 million
all modes an
Fig
ources: Departm
s for all mod
for goods m
then the tren
ed by road w
the supply c
to emerge.
ber of links
opments:
nt of primar
hicle fill dur
gnments thro
her suppliers
networks for
he supply cha
online retaili
home rather
gistics – wit
w reverse cha
f additiona
n habits suc
more proces
sintegration
to subcontr
the productio
The DMI ha
m 799 millio
tonnes in 2
nd road freig
gure 14. Handlin
ment for Trans
des of transp
moved by roa
nd has rever
were subject
chain up to
within dom
ry consolida
ring a period
ough consol
for delivery
r handling pa
ains.
ing – this ad
r than at the
h more was
annels compr
l stages in
ch as shift t
ssing points
of product
ractors, resu
on process.
18
s been relat
on tonnes in
011 (Office f
ght transport
ng factors for ro
port, 2012, Off
port increase
ad had first d
rsed, reachin
t to restruct
mid‐1990s,
estic road‐b
ation and ce
d of tighteni
idation cent
y in a fully lo
arcel and pa
ds an extra
shop.
ste being re
rise more no
the produ
o more pre‐
into the food
tion – occu
lting in prod
tively stable
n 1970 to 85
for National
t are shown
oad and all mo
ice for Nationa
ed gradually
decreased fr
ng the value o
turing press
but recently
ased supply
entralised so
ng JIT press
res where th
oaded vehicle
llet loads ha
link to the s
ecycled or r
odes and link
uction proce
‐prepared o
d supply cha
rs when so
ducts movin
over the las
51 million to
Statistics 20
in Figure 14.
des
l Statistics, 201
from 2.2 in
rom 3.2 in 1
of 3.4 in 201
ures causing
y structures
chains is lik
ortation – in
ures, compa
heir product
e. Also, the d
as added to
upply chain
eused inste
ks for sorting
ess – for e
r ready‐mad
in.
ome interme
g between a
st four decad
onnes in 200
013c). The e
13c
1980 to 2.8
980 to arou
10. This sugg
g a reductio
with more
kely to be a
n order to im
anies are cha
ts are combi
developmen
the average
where it end
ad of being
g and reproce
example cha
de food, can
ediate activ
a greater nu
des, with
07, and a
stimated
in 2010.
nd 2.9 in
gests that
on in the
handling
result of
mprove /
annelling
ned with
t of hub‐
e number
ds at the
g sent to
essing.
anges in
n require
vities are
umber of
6.
The rela
strength
2008). O
links in s
5.6.2.AThe ave
to 95 km
kms in 2
Also, the
past thir
and a fa
the last
One of t
haul is
compan
factories
internat
domesti
inventor
haul bet
The sup
since th
Cundill a
Changes in
their expen
instance ele
ative contrib
h varies acro
Overall, Figu
supply chain
Averagelenrage length o
ms in 1999. I
2011. Articu
e average ha
rty years. Th
alling averag
three decad
the most fre
centralisatio
ies to explo
s, warehous
tional freight
ic feeder mo
ry was likely
tween the lat
pply chain st
ere is a clos
and Hull (197
product mix
nditure away
ctronic equi
butions of th
oss industry
re 14 clearly
s has been p
gthofhaulof haul had i
t then stabil
lated lorries
aul lengths o
he trend for
e length of
es with sligh
quently men
on of econo
oit economie
ses and othe
t on main h
ovements (M
y to have bee
te 1960s and
tructure con
se correlatio
79) establish
x – as econo
y from bas
pment, requ
he factors lis
sectors, com
y suggests th
prevalent sin
increased sig
lised at 86‐8
have signifi
f the two ca
articulated
haul since th
ht peaks arou
Figure 15
Source: Depa
ntioned reas
omic activity
es of scale i
er facilities
hub ports an
McKinnon, 2
en a major c
d early 1980s
nsiderably af
n between t
hed that the
19
mies develo
ic commodi
uiring multist
sted above
mmodity gro
hat in the U
ce the early‐
gnificantly ov
87 kms until
cantly longe
tegories of t
vehicles exh
hen. Rigid ve
und early and
5. Average leng
artment for Tra
sons offered
y. Spatial c
in operation
within the l
nd airports r
2008). Accor
cause of the
s.
ffects the o
the distance
percentage
p, consumer
ities toward
tage assemb
are virtually
ups, countri
K a trend to
‐2000s.
ver the 20th c
2009 when
er average le
trucks have f
hibits a steep
ehicles show
d late 2000s
gth of haul
ansport, 2012
for the leng
oncentration
ns but result
logistics syst
results in ex
rding to McK
e over 50% in
overall perfo
travelled an
of empty ru
rs switch a g
ds more com
ly operation
y impossible
es and even
owards incre
century from
it started to
ength of hau
followed diff
per increase
w a relatively
(Figure 15).
gthening of t
n of econom
ts in greater
tem. Also, t
xpanding hin
Kinnon (198
ncrease in th
ormance of
nd probabilit
unning declin
greater prop
mplex prod
s.
to quantify
n regions (M
asing the nu
m just 35 kms
increase aga
ul than rigid
ferent paths
until the la
y stable patt
he average l
mic activity
r distances
the concentr
nterlands an
89), concentr
he average l
logistics, pa
ty of empty
nes as the len
ortion of
ucts, for
as their
cKinnon,
umber of
s in 1953
ain to 93
vehicles.
over the
te 1990s
tern over
length of
enables
between
ration of
d longer
ration of
length of
rticularly
running.
ngth of a
The star
linked b
associat
chain st
fuel effic
This fram
increase
5.5.MRoad is
was resp
with 7%
Transpo
The shar
been re
freight m
McKinno
privatisa
2007. M
to the d
tonne‐k
In the U
this tren
within t
low poi
increasin
freight t
account
rting point i
y a number
ed GHG em
ructure. Lad
ciency and c
mework can
e or a reduct
odalsplitby far the d
ponsible for
% / 5% by van
ort, 2012, 201
re of tonnes
elatively stab
market had
on (2009) su
ation of rail
McKinnon (20
decline in th
ms moved g
K, the volum
nd continuin
he longer‐te
nt of 13 bi
ng gradually
transport m
ed for 38% o
is total prod
of conversio
missions. Han
ding factor a
carbon inten
be used to
ion in the GH
tdominant mo
76% of good
ns, 5% / 9%
13).
lifted by HG
ble at aroun
been increa
uggests that
freight serv
007b) attribu
e North Sea
rew by 54%
Figure 13. H
S
mes of freight
ng over the
erm downwa
illion tonne‐
y to 19 billio
arket has b
of tonne‐kms
duction or c
on factors to
ndling factor
nd empty ru
sity of fuel c
estimate ho
HG emissions
ode for good
ds lifted and
by rail, 5% /
GVs increased
d 76‐78%. I
sing up to 1
t this break
ices in 1996
utes this incr
a oil product
from 90 to 1
GV freight mar
Source: Departm
t moved by r
mid‐1980s
ard one” (Wo
‐kms in 199
on tonne‐km
een relative
s moved and
20
onsumption
the amount
r and the av
unning are th
can be subsu
ow changes i
s from road
ds movemen
63% of tonn
/ 19% by wat
d from 74% i
n terms of
1997 and the
in the earli
6. Neverthel
rease to the
tion. In tota
139 billion to
rket share by to
ment for Transp
rail had been
and 1990s
oodburn, 200
94 and 1995
ms in 2010,
ely stable at
d 46% of tonn
measured
t of lorry traf
verage lengt
he two para
umed under
in each of th
freight trans
nt in the UK.
ne‐kms move
ter and 8% /
in 1980 to 78
tonne‐kms
en declined
ier trend ca
less, road’s
reduction in
l, over the p
onne‐kms.
onne‐kms and t
port, 2012, 201
n in a long‐te
“though wit
01, p.2). Ton
5. More rec
though the
8‐9% over
nes lifted by
in terms of
ffic measure
h of haul de
meters of ve
the heading
he variables
sport.
Road freigh
ed in 2010 (F
/ 5% by pipe
8% in 1984 a
moved, truc
by 8% betw
n be partly
share increa
coastal ship
period betw
tonnes lifted.
13
erm decline s
th a shorter
nne‐kms mov
cently, the
percentage
the last dec
rail in 2008.
output wei
ed in vehicle
etermine th
ehicle utilisa
g ‘fuel manag
can contribu
ht transport
Figure 13), co
line (Depart
and, since the
cks’ share of
ween 1997 an
associated
ased again to
pping tonne‐k
ween 1980 an
since the 195
r‐term cyclic
ved by rail re
volumes ha
share of ra
cade. Coal a
.
ght. It is
kms and
e supply
ation and
gement’.
ute to an
by HGVs
ompared
ment for
en, it has
f the UK
nd 2005.
with the
o 63% in
kms, due
nd 2010,
50s, with
cal trend
eached a
ave been
ail in the
and coke
21
In 2010, 106 million tonnes were lifted and 42 billion tonne‐kms were moved by waterborne
transport. Looking at the longer term trend, tonnes lifted peaked at 156 million tonnes in 1988 and
have been declining gradually since then. Tonne‐kms have been relatively stable since the early
1980s, with two peaks at 67 billion tonne‐kms in 2000 and 2002. Crude petroleum and petroleum
products are the main cargo moved by waterborne transport, accounting for 73% of its total tonne‐
kms and 47% of tonnes lifted in 2008.
Given that, after airfreight, road is the most CO2 intensive transport mode (McKinnon, 2007b),
shifting more freight to rail, waterborne or pipeline transport would lead to a reduction in the
absolute level of energy consumption and GHG emissions from moving freight. Significant modal
shift could be achieved by promoting intermodal services. Intermodal transport can be defined as
the movement of goods in one loading unit or vehicle by successive modes of transport without
handling of the goods while changing modes (Woodburn, 2008). The volume of intermodal transport
represents around 5% of total freight in Europe (Savy, 2009). Although an equivalent figure for the
UK is not known, as rail intermodal is simply subsumed in the rail figure, intermodal freight transport
is developing into a significant sector of the freight transport industry and helps to improve the
environmental performance of freight transport sector as a whole.
5.6.SupplychainstructureSupply chain structure is characterised by two variables: the number of links in the supply chain and
the average distance between them.
5.6.1.HandlingfactorThe number of links in the supply chain can be measured by the handling factor. It can be estimated
by dividing tonnes lifted by the total weight of goods moved. As tonnes lifted are recorded every
time goods are loaded onto a vehicle, the same load gets recorded several times as it makes its way
through the supply chain. Thus, dividing tonnes lifted by the actual weight of loads moved gives a
crude estimate of how many times, on average, goods are being handled as they move along the
supply chains, i.e. number of links in the chain.
Handling factor is relatively difficult to estimate mostly because of different commodity classification
systems used by different surveys employed to gather economic output and freight transport data.
Production / consumption data is typically reported in ‘value’ rather than ‘volume/weight’ units.
Hence, it needs to be converted to volume / weight but, there is a lack of reliable value‐to‐weight
conversion ratios. Thus for the purpose of this report a slightly modified approach was applied.
Instead of trying to find proxies for the unavailable data, which had previously proven highly
problematic (Sorrell et al., 2009), an approximate handling factor was calculated by dividing the
tonnes‐lifted estimates by corresponding material flow value published in the UK National Accounts .
The Direct Material Input (DMI) was used as a substitute for the weight of output data. DMI is
defined as the sum of the total amounts of primary resources extracted from the UK environment
and the amount of imports into the UK. DMI includes the weight of goods exported and excludes the
excess material or hidden flows associated with the domestic extraction and import of materials. It
can be considered as the most appropriate estimate of the weight of goods produced and/or
trip incr
indicate
under 1%
average
and max
(Palmer
return jo
required
5.7.VeThe leve
5.7.1.E“A funda
to their
product
any freig
demand
operato
empty r
In the U
to 26%
around
persiste
values m
own acc
of opera
reases, reflec
that for hau
% per 10 km
of 28%. On
ximum and m
and Piecyk,
ourney. Hen
d to adjust th
ehicleutilel of vehicle u
Emptyrunnamental diff
starting poin
ion to point
ght transpor
d arises. Em
rs and result
unning shou
UK, empty ru
in 2001. Ho
5.4 billion k
ntly a few p
merged at 29
count and hir
ators have re
cting the gre
uls up to ab
m. Also, only
the other h
minimum trip
, 2010), whi
nce, as the a
he logistics sy
lisationutilisation is
ingference betw
nt, whereas
of consump
rt system as
mpty running
ts in a range
ld be a prior
nning decre
owever, since
ms were dri
percentage p
9%. There is
re and rewar
emained very
eater econom
out 300 km,
about 15% o
hand, there i
p times, i.e. t
ich may res
verage lengt
ystem to les
measured b
ween passen
almost all fr
ption” (McKin
empty vehic
g contribute
e of negative
rity in every s
FigurSource: Depa
ased from o
e then it ha
ven unladen
points highe
s virtually no
rd operators
y similar ove
22
mic incentive
, the empty
of all trips ov
is also a stro
the longer th
ult in limite
th of haul in
s reliable tra
y key variab
ger and freig
eight consig
nnon and Ge
cles need to
s to road c
e environmen
sustainable t
re 16. Empty ruartment for Tra
over 31% of t
s risen again
n in 2010. Th
r than by ar
o difference
s. The averag
er the past tw
e to carry a
running dec
ver 500 km a
ong relations
he journey th
d opportuni
ncreases, mo
ansit times.
les: empty ru
ght transpor
nments mov
e, 2006, p.39
be repositio
congestion,
ntal impacts
transport sys
nning ansport, 2012
the total dist
n, reaching
he empty ru
rticulated ve
in the perce
ge levels of e
wo decades.
load over lo
clines steadil
are empty, w
ship betwee
he more vari
ities to carry
ore adaptatio
unning and l
rt is that peo
ve in one dir
91). Empty r
oned to the p
increases co
s. Consequen
stem.
tance travel
nearly 29%
nning by rig
ehicles until
entage of em
mpty runnin
nger distanc
ly at a rate o
well below th
n distances
iable the trav
y a backload
on measures
ading factor
ople general
ection, from
unning is inh
point where
ost to road
ntly, the redu
led in the m
in 2010. As
id vehicles h
2008, when
mpty running
ng for the tw
ces. They
of a little
e overall
travelled
vel times
d on the
s may be
.
ly return
m point of
herent in
the next
haulage
uction of
mid‐1980s
a result,
had been
the two
g for the
wo groups
23
Factors influencing empty running
The long‐term decrease in the percentage of lorry kms run empty can be attributed to the following
factors (McKinnon,1996, McKinnon and Ge, 2006):
1. Increase in the average length of haul – the economic incentive to find a suitable load
increases with the distance over which a vehicle has to travel
2. Change in trip structure – the proportion of kilometres run empty declines as the number of
drops per trip increases. On a multi‐stop journey only the last leg would normally be run
empty and, at the same time, it is also likely to be relatively short
3. Greater use of load‐matching services – as load matching agencies provide an increasingly
comprehensive range of services, including credit rating assessment of potential customer,
the risk associated with picking up backload traffic on a spot hire basis is significantly
reduced. Using the UK as a case study, Davies et al. (2007) examined the extent to which
information communication technology (ICT) and Internet freight exchanges affect the road
freight transport industry. Their research shows that almost 33% of companies investigated
used the Internet at least sometimes to access backloads and, out of them, 69% indicated
that using freight exchanges had helped to reduce empty running
4. Reverse logistics, this includes the reverse flow of waste packaging material and re‐usable
handling equipment which has been growing in recent years
5. Management initiatives to improve backloading, e.g. retailers using returning shop delivery
vehicles to collect loads from by suppliers sometimes on a factory gate pricing basis (Potter
et al., 2007)
6. Increasing cost of road transport
Although backloading has become an increasingly common practice in the road freight industry,
there is still a significant proportion of vehicles returning to base without a load. No research has yet
been done to explain why the percentage of kms travelled empty has been increasing in recent
years. It is uncertain whether this rise is going to endure or if it is a temporary discontinuity in the
statistical data series.
Based on past research, the most commonly listed factors inhibiting backloading include (McKinnon,
1996, Davies et al., 2007):
Requirements of the outbound delivery service –due to customer service requirements,
priority is given to outbound deliveries
Internal management structure, particularly lack of co‐ordination between purchasing and
logistics departments that may result in many backloading opportunities being unnoticed
Incompatibility of vehicles and products, the risk of cross‐contamination between products
can also limit backloading opportunities
Rates available for backhauls are too low
Need to recover handling equipment / packaging
Time limitations and poor matching of locations and schedules – available loads take too
long to load and deliver and/or working practices such as booking‐in schedules or opening
times can make picking up a backload impossible
5.7.2.LLading f
have be
59% in 2
for artic
As the la
changed
vehicle
affected
per HGV
relations
is growin
adingfactoactor is expr
een carried o
2010, reachin
ulated than
ading factor
d in terms o
capacity, th
d the lading
V journey.
ship betwee
ng faster tha
orressed as a ra
on a laden tr
ng its lowest
for rigid veh
is a weight‐
of cubic volu
e changes in
factor over
The average
en average lo
an the actual
F
atio of the a
rip. The aver
t point at 56%
icles (Figure
Figu
Source: Depa
based meas
umes carried
n the maxim
the years. F
e load incre
oad weight a
l average loa
Figure 18. Aver
Source: Depa
24
ctual weight
rage load fac
% in 2006. T
17).
ure 17. Lading fa
artment for Tra
ure, it gives
d. Also, as it
mum permis
igure 18 sho
eased gradu
nd lading fa
ad.
age load carrie
artment for Tra
t of goods to
ctor declined
he lading fac
actor
ansport, 2012
no indicatio
t is expresse
ssible weight
ows the tren
ually to 10.4
ctor suggest
d on laden trip
ansport, 2012
o the maximu
d in the UK f
ctor has bee
n of how the
ed as a per
t and dimen
nd in the ave
4 tonnes in
ts that availa
s.
um weight th
from 66% in
n consistent
e vehicle loa
centage of
nsions of HG
erage weigh
n 2010. The
able carrying
hat could
n 1984 to
tly higher
ading has
available
GVs have
ht carried
e inverse
capacity
Factors
The dec
2006b):
The tren
factor s
running
initiative
should h
Consolid
longer s
supply
improve
influencing l
clining levels
Demand flu
sufficient c
capacity du
Just‐in‐time
quantities is
Unreliabilit
congestion,
the require
Vehicle siz
measure, it
of loads ar
carried by
(Departmen
Health and
Capacity co
the storage
by the stand
Figu
nds in the tw
eem to hav
has been
es aimed at
help compa
dation of loa
semitrailers)
networks),
ements in ve
lading facto
s of vehicle
uctuations –
capacity to a
ring periods
e (JIT) deliv
s required, t
ty of deliver
, more vehic
d period. As
ze and weig
may undere
re volume, r
HGVs were
nt for Transp
safety regu
onstraints at
e capacity at
dard slot hei
ure 19. Propor
wo key varia
ve reversed
increasing s
reducing it
nies to at le
ads in larger
and inter‐ c
are the two
hicle utilisat
r
loading can
– when a com
accommodat
of low dema
very – when
his tends to
ry schedules
les may be n
a result, the
ght restricti
estimate the
rather than
limited by
port, 2012).
lations may
t company p
one end of
ight of wareh
rtion of tonne
Source: Depa
ables determ
their longer
since 2003,
. The lading
east partially
/ heavier ve
company col
o initiatives
ion in the ne
25
be attribut
mpany faces
te peak ord
and.
n more freq
depress veh
s – if schedu
needed to se
ese vehicles w
ons ‐ as la
e actual utilis
weight‐limit
volume, wh
also constra
premises – s
the trip, for
house rackin
e‐kms limited
artment for Tra
mining vehic
r‐term direct
despite inc
g factor incr
y offset the
ehicles (for e
laboration (
believed t
ear future.
ted to the fo
variable dem
ders, will ine
quent replen
icle loading.
ules are unre
erve a given
will be trave
ding factor
sation of veh
ted (Figure 1
hile only 3%
in weight an
sometimes t
example pa
ng systems.
by weight and
ansport, 2012
cle utilisation
tions in a la
creasing att
eased slight
e negative co
example thro
both vertica
o offer the
ollowing con
mand, the ve
evitably be
nishment of
eliable, due
number of d
lling only pa
is an exclu
hicles as an in
19). In 2010
% were limit
nd dimension
he size of lo
allet stacking
d/or volume, 2
n, i.e. empty
ast few year
tention and
tly over the
onsequence
ough the use
ally as well a
e greatest p
nstraints (M
ehicles acqui
running wit
f supplies in
to for exam
delivery poin
rtially loaded
usively weig
ncreasing pr
0, 30% of to
ted solely by
ns of loads.
oad is constr
g may be con
2010
y running an
rs in the UK
numerous
last few ye
s of empty
e of double‐
as horizontal
potential for
cKinnon,
ired with
h excess
n smaller
mple road
ts within
d.
ht‐based
roportion
onne‐kms
y weight
rained by
nstrained
nd lading
K. Empty
industry
ears. This
running.
‐decks or
ly across
r further
5.8.FuFuel ma
5.8.1.FFuel effi
since 19
and ear
become
from 2.5
efficienc
km/litre
vehicles
20).
In the U
this can
amongst
Commis
efficienc
fuel effic
Improvin
In a typ
system
losses, l
to overc
uelmanagnagement fo
uelefficieniciency data
989. The fuel
lier years ar
increasingly
5 kms in 19
cy of mediu
e in 2006 (Siv
, on the oth
UK, fuel cons
rise to over
t the highe
ssion, 2013))
cy of their fl
ciency, howe
ng fuel effici
ical modern
and cooling
eaving 42%
come the foll
Aerodynami
Rolling resis
Drive train f
Operation o
Inertial force
gementocuses on tw
ncyfor road fre
consumptio
re not comp
y fuel efficie
993 to 2.9 k
m and heav
vak and Tsim
er hand, has
stitutes arou
35% during
est in Euro
. Increases i
eets. Relying
ever, may no
iency
diesel truck
g system, an
available as
lowing facto
ic drag
tance
riction
f ancillary eq
es (during ac
wo main ratio
ight transpo
on figures fo
parable with
ent with the
kms in 2005
vy trucks imp
mhoni, 2009
s decreased
Figure 20.
Source: Depa
nd 32% of a
periods of h
pe (14% ab
n these pric
g on high fu
ot be sustain
k engine, 53%
nd another
engine outp
rs:
quipment
cceleration o
26
os, the fuel e
ort have been
r 1993 onwa
h the later s
e average di
5 and 2.7km
proved only
). The avera
from 3.4 km
. Fuel efficiency
artment for Tra
annual vehic
high oil prices
bove the E
es give oper
el price alon
able in the lo
% of the fue
5% is dissip
put (Ang‐Ols
or climbing).
efficiency and
n collected b
ards have be
series. Since
istance trave
ms in 2010.
modestly f
ge fuel effic
m/litre in 199
y (km/litre)
ansport, 2012
le operating
s (McKinnon
U28 averag
rators a stro
ne to encour
onger term.
el energy is l
pated throug
son and Schr
d carbon inte
by the Depar
een revised,
1993, articu
elled per lit
For compar
rom 2.4 km
iency for the
93 to 3.2 km
g costs (Burn
n, 2012). Fue
ge in Octob
ng incentive
rage compan
ost as heat
gh engine fr
roeer, 2003)
ensity of fue
rtment for T
hence, data
ulated vehic
re of fuel in
ison, in the
/litre in 196
e UK‐registe
/litre in 201
ns Inquiry, 20
l prices in th
ber 2013 (E
e to improve
nies to impro
through the
riction and
. This energy
l used.
Transport
for 1992
cles have
ncreasing
US, the
66 to 2.5
ered rigid
0 (Figure
005) and
he UK are
European
e the fuel
ove their
e exhaust
pumping
y is used
The con
weight,
that sho
(2004) c
Data co
compan
transmis
measure
compan
likely to
potentia
UK Depa
ntribution of
terrain, driv
ould be targe
classify fuel e
Logistics eff
category and
Vehicle effic
Driver effic
components
Route effici
conditions, e
ollected by t
ies regularly
ssion, reduci
es to impro
ies who are
be more pr
al for further
artment for T
f each of th
ver behaviou
eted when f
efficiency me
ficiency ‐ ens
d optimising
ciency ‐ vehi
iency ‐ train
s of driving b
iency ‐ optim
etc.
Figure 21.
the UK Freig
y monitor the
ing engine id
ve fuel effic
e already me
ro‐active in r
r fuel efficie
Transport id
ese factors
ur, weather a
fuel efficienc
easures into
suring optim
g all transpor
cle technolo
ning and / o
behaviour tha
mal routing
. Top ten fuel e
S
ght Transpor
e fuel perfor
dling and inst
ciency (Figu
embers of th
reducing the
ncy savings
entified aero
27
to energy l
and paveme
cy improvem
four categor
al loading of
rt links from t
ogy, design an
or assistanc
at influence
based on in
efficiency interv
ource: FTA, 201
rt Associatio
mance of th
talling cab ro
re 21). How
he FTA's Log
eir GHG emis
within the i
odynamic tra
osses depen
nt condition
ments are sou
ries:
f vehicles, se
the point of
nd maintena
e from on‐b
fuel use
nformation a
ventions, FTA su
13
on (2013) in
eir drivers. Im
oof air defle
wever, the s
gistics Carbo
ssions. There
ndustry. A s
ailers, vehicl
nds on oper
ns, etc. Thus,
ught. Leonar
electing the m
origin to the
ance
board units
about itinera
urvey 2012
dicates that
mplementin
ctors are the
survey was
n Reduction
efore, there
study by RICA
e platooning
rating speed
, these are t
rdi and Baum
most suitabl
e final destin
used for m
ary, road an
t 73% of res
g automated
e three most
conducted
n Scheme, h
seems to be
ARDO (2009
g (i.e. HGVs d
, vehicle
the areas
mgartner
e vehicle
ation
measuring
nd traffic
sponding
d manual
t popular
amongst
ence are
e a great
9) for the
driving in
28
’convoys’ on motorways) and Safe and Fuel Efficient Driving (SAFED) driver training as having the
greatest potential to reduce fuel consumption and related GHG emissions.
5.8.2.CarbonintensityCurrently, diesel fuel is the main source of energy for road freight transport throughout the world.
Burning one litre of diesel fuel emits 2.6 kg CO2e (DEFRA, 2013). One way to reduce GHG emissions
from road freight transport is to switch to less carbon intensive fuels. Alternative fuels include
biofuels and other non‐diesel fuel sources e.g. natural gas, electricity or hydrogen.
In terms of carbon intensity, however, the reduction in CO2 emissions attributable to biodiesel can
only be assessed on a life‐cycle basis. The exhaust CO2 emissions are comparable for bio‐ and
conventional diesel fuel, with some of the recent studies suggesting even a 10% increase in the
tailpipe CO2 emissions when using biodiesel (Department for Transport, 2007). This is because of the
lower heat value of biodiesel which results in lower fuel efficiency. It is the carbon sequestration
effect of growing the plants to produce biodiesel that contributes to lower CO2 emission factors for
biodiesel on a life‐cycle basis. The full impact of biofuels, taking account of land use change, still
remains uncertain. For example, Fargione et al. (2008) show that biodiesel, if produced on
converted tropical rainforest in Indonesia and Malaysia (these two countries currently account for
86% of global palm oil production), could increase greenhouse gases when compared with refining
and using the fossil fuels it typically displaces. The adverse effects of land conversion necessary for
biofuel production may be overcome by the use of ‘second‐generation’ biodiesel “derived from
waste and forest products grown on land unsuited to agricultural production (..), though large‐scale
commercial production may take years to develop” (McKinnon, 2008, p.19). Biomethane / biogas
now seem more promising biofuels for trucks and vans.
Other alternative fuels include hydrogen, natural gas – compressed or liquid (CNG, LNG), and liquid
petroleum gas (LPG). However, their applications in HGVs are at present still very limited. The main
challenge to successful adaptation of alternative energy sources is ensuring the availability of
relevant fuels. Provision of storage facilities and refuelling infrastructure is a key to wide industrial
acceptance of a given energy option (Beresford et al. 2003). Also, availability of raw materials, as
well as production and distribution costs are crucial (Johansson, 2003).
Electric vehicles are becoming increasingly popular around the world, despite still having relatively
limited driving distances and lengthy battery charge times. There are two major advantages of
electric vehicles – they emit virtually no tailpipe emissions and they are much quieter than
conventional trucks. This makes electric vehicles particularly suited for the demands of urban
distribution. Although electric trucks are virtually pollution free at point of use, their overall
environmental performance depends on the source of electricity used to recharge the batteries.
Thus, “until electricity is produced from renewable sources, the burden of environmental damage is
merely being transferred from the vehicle to upstream power plants” (Leonardi, Cullinane and
Edwards, 2012, p.321). Further, electric or hybrid (diesel‐electric) engines are only likely to be used
in rigid vehicles. The opportunities for their application to long haul articulated lorries seem to very
limited, except to power ancillary equipment (McKinnon et al., 2012). Electrification of the vehicle
body eq
types, of
It is imp
objectiv
emit diff
emission
pollution
alternat
6. TraInvolvem
transpor
halved,
been ac
accident
The red
casualtie
fatal, 23
noted to
blame fo
quipment, su
ffers a signif
ortant to no
e and consid
ferent mixes
ns is a prior
n associated
ive fuel optio
afficaccidment of freig
rt. Since 200
from 14,813
chieved desp
t involvemen
uction in ac
es in accide
39 serious an
oo that acc
or the accide
uch as refrig
ficant potent
ote that in th
deration nee
s of pollutant
rity in preve
d with exha
ons.
dentsght vehicles
01 the annu
3 to 7,126 (
pite significa
nt per million
Figure 22. A
cident involv
nts involving
nd 1543 slig
ident involv
ent.
geration and
tial for CO2 re
e case of alt
eds to be giv
ts, both on a
enting clima
aust emissio
in road tra
al number o
Figure 22). T
nt increase
n vehicle‐km
Annual numbeSource: Depa
vement has
g HGVs over
ht accidents
ement does
29
d refuse han
eduction (RIC
ternative fue
ven to the w
a tailpipe and
ate change,
ons need to
ffic accident
of HGVs invo
This reductio
in the volum
s dropped fr
er of HGVs invartment for Tr
been parall
r the past d
s more, than
s not necess
dling, althou
CARDO, 2009
els, reduction
whole range
d life cycle ba
other healt
o be taken
ts is an imp
olved in acc
on in the le
me of HGV
rom 0.53 to 0
volved in traffransport, 2013
eled by a st
decade. Rigid
n articulated
sarily mean
ugh still limi
9).
n of CO2 emi
of air pollut
asis. Althoug
h and non‐h
into accou
portant exter
idents in th
vel of accide
traffic. Betw
0.28.
fic accidents 3
teep reductio
d vehicles w
lorries (Figu
that the fre
ited to spec
ssions is not
tants. Differe
gh minimisin
health effec
nt when ev
rnal effect o
e UK has m
ent involvem
ween 2001 a
on in the nu
were involved
ure 23). It sh
eight vehicle
ific body
t the sole
ent fuels
g carbon
cts of air
valuating
of freight
ore than
ment has
and 2011
umber of
d in four
hould be
e was to
7. ConThis stu
transpor
Figure 23
nclusionsdy has revie
rt systems. S
Logistics is a
socio‐econo
The UK freig
2010. This t
18.8 billion k
The road ha
vehicles. 87
55 road hau
The GHG in
preceding lo
recession m
transport o
tonne‐km, s
Road‐based
between the
The proport
29% of HGV
10.4 tonnes
3. HGVs involv
sewed the av
Several key m
a vital part o
omic wellbein
ght market s
rend is also
kilometres, c
aulage indus
% of road h
lage compan
ntensity of r
ong‐term re
ade it very d
perations. In
uggesting at
supply chai
em.
tion of vehic
V kilometres
of freight w
ved in traffic aSource: Depa
vailable data
messages em
of the UK e
ng.
shows signs
evident in th
carrying near
stry remains
aulage comp
nies in the U
road freight
duction tren
difficult for b
n 2010, the
t least some
ns typically
cle‐kilometre
were driven
as carried.
30
accidents by aartment for Tr
on many as
merged from
conomy and
of recovery
he road freig
rly 1.5 billion
s highly frag
panies emplo
K employing
t transport
nd. The sud
businesses to
GHG intens
restoration o
comprise 3.
es run empt
n without car
ccident severransport, 2013
spects of th
this review:
d a key enab
with the vo
ght transpor
n tonnes of f
gmented wit
oy fewer tha
g 250+ worke
increased in
dden decline
o maintain th
sity declined
of the past e
4 nodes wit
ty has been
rrying a load
ity and HGV t3
e UK's logist
bler of long‐
lumes of fre
t sector. In 2
reight.
h the avera
an 10 people
ers.
n 2008 and
e in freight
he efficiency
d again to 0
efficiency imp
th an averag
increasing s
d. On laden j
ype, 2011
tics and roa
‐term prospe
eight increas
2010, HGVs
ge fleet size
e and there
2009, brea
volumes du
y of their roa
0.12 kg CO2
provement t
ge distance o
since 2001.
journeys, on
d freight
erity and
ing since
travelled
e of four
are only
aking the
uring the
ad freight
e / road
rend.
of 93kms
In 2010,
average
31
Had the empty running remained at the lowest recorded levels (i.e. 27.2% for rigid and
25.2% for articulated trucks), 471 million truck kms could have been avoided in 2010, saving
164 million litres of diesel fuel, 426 thousand tonnes of CO2e, and £160 million in fuel costs3.
There have been steep reductions in the involvement of HGVs in traffic accidents and in the
number of related casualties.
Published statistics in the UK permit a thorough analysis of the road freight transport sector.
However, recent cutbacks in government‐sponsored freight surveys are very worrying. Without
detailed and accurate freight data it is very difficult to make informed decisions about freight‐related
policy measures and infrastructure investment decisions. As the UK economy continues on its path
to recovery, it is important that public and private resources are allocated with full appreciation of
business realities and the complexity of modern supply chains. With the ambitious sustainability
targets set for the country and the industry, an in‐depth understanding of the road freight transport
market is crucial to address the real logistics challenges lying ahead.
3 The calculations are based on an assumption that reduction of empty running will not cause an increase in laden kms. Bulk diesel prices at 30.09.2010 = 97.90 pence per litre, as recorded by the RHA (2012).
32
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