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SOMALIAANNEXIV.AREASOFCONCERNFromversion:Somalia_MEDA_20100825_v4
2.BIOPHYSICALENVIRONMENT
2.1Description
of
the
coast
and
distinctive
features
The Somali Government does not have the capacity to control foreign incursions into the
exclusive economic zone (EEZ)of the Somaliwaters,which leaves thedooropen for foreign
vesselstoexploittheseresources.Atthesametime,thecompletelackofanyregulationsisalso
anotherconcern.Theseproblemsofunsustainableexploitationareexpected topersist in the
future due to a lack of or inadequate capacity for effectivemanagement and surveillance,
including failures inaddressing illegal fishingand conducting stockassessments,coupledwith
inadequateknowledgeandinformation.
2.2Generaldescriptionoftheclimate
Unpredictable
rainfall
patterns
resulting
in
severe
droughts
and
floods
2.3Marineandcoastalgeologyandgeomorphology
Coastalerosion
Mostof theSomali coastlinehasbeen seriouslyaffectedby coastalerosion,especially in the
easternregions,alsoinsouthernparts.Coastalerosionisamajorenvironmentalconcernalong
the East African coast and leads to shifting coastal features such as dunes, beaches and
shoreline.
OilExploitation
Somaliahasbeensparselyexploredandseveralareaswithworldclasspotential remain tobe
tested.
Just
prior
to
the
onset
of
the
civil
war
in
December
of
1990,
several
concessions
were
heldbymajorinternationalpetroleumcompaniesandatleastthreekeywellswerescheduledto
bedrilled.Inadditiongiantoilcompaniesbecameinterestedondifferentsedimentarybasinsof
Somalia.
2.4Freshwaterresourcesanddrainage,includingrivers,estuaries,
deltasandcoastallakes
Salinisation isa seriousenvironmentalproblem related to irrigation in the river. Ithasahigh
salinecontentevenduringhighflows(Markakis1998).
Inbothriverbasins,Somaliaisthedownstreamriparian,whichistheleastfavorablepositionto
bein
hydro
political
terms,
as
the
upstream
basin
country,
Ethiopia,
can
theoretically
divert
and
pollutethewaterintherivers.
Peoplearestartingtoliveintraditionalfloodplaneareasaspopulationpressureincreases;this
increasesthepotentialforlossoflifeandpropertyintheeventofaflood(FAOSWALIM2009).
Themajorfloodchannelsusedtobemaintainedbythegovernmentbuthavefallenintodirepair
since thecivilwar.Thishas increased theeffectsof floods in the lowerandMiddleShabeelle
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areasespecially(FAOSWALIM2009).
Riverembankmentsarebeingused foragriculturewhichcauses flooding inperiodswhen the
riversarestillbelowhistoricalfloodinglevelsstages(FAOSWALIM2009).
2.5
Physical
Oceanography
2.5.1Currents(Coastalhydrodynamicsandoffshorecurrentsystems)
2.5.2Tidalregimeandwaves
The country lacks a disaster management plan for coping with extreme storm surges and
tsunamis.
With urbanmigration increasing (see section 3.1), the number of people along the coast in
major cities is increasing. This puts a high number of people at risk from storm surge and
tsunamis.
2.5.3
Sea
level
change
Reductionincoastalfisheriesproduction
Swampingofcoralreefs
Saltwaterintrusionandflooding
Displacementofcoastalpopulations
Lossofcoastalinfrastructure
2.5.4Oceantemperature
Coralbleaching
2.5.5Salinitypatterns
2.5.6Oceanatmosphereinteraction
Globalwarmingmaycauseextremeeventstooccurduetothedynamicsofthesecouplings.
Oceanacidificationmayhappenduetoclimatechangeanditseffectsontheoceancurrents.
2.6ChemicalandBiologicalOceanography
2.6.1Nutrients
Increasednutrientsleadingtooceanacidificationduetohighlevelsofcoastalpollution
Siltationofestuariesandmangrovesisleadingtoreductioninthenutrientsavailableformarine
species.
2.6.2Persistentorganic/inorganicpollutants
Destructionofturtlenestingbeachesthroughpollutionandplasticwaste
Increasing levels of fertilizers used along river courses resulting in eutrophication of lower
reachesandexcessnutrientsbeingreleasedintotheoceans
Pollutantsmaydestroysensitiveecosystemssuchascoralreefs,mangrovesandseagrassbeds.
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2.6.3Primaryproduction
1)HarmfulAlgalBlooms(HAB):
In January,2002, aHAB along the EastAfrican coast fromMogadishu in Somalia to Lamu in
northern Kenya, associatedwith the strong,upwellingof the Somali current and anunusual
strongNEwind(force56)thatmayhaveblownitonshore.Thisbloomlastedfor10days,with
extensivefish
mortalities
during
the
first
three
days,
and
numerous
fish
and
other
marine
animals,suchasturtlesbeingwasheduponthebeachesorfoundfloatingontheoceansurface.
However, consumption of and trade in fish from beacheswere banned, aswell as, trade in
shellfish for the duration of the red tides, although Somali people do no eat shellfishes.
However,therewerenohumanfatalitiesbutsomecasesofeyeirritationsandheadaches.The
economy, however, was seriously affected as local fishing communities are almost entirely
dependentonfisheries.Accordingto laboratoryanalysis inNairobi,Kenyaand inSouthAfrica,
both identifiedGymnodiniumasamajorcomponentofthebloom,andsatellite imaginary for
the period confirmed an increase level of chlorophyll in the area. Nevertheless, the exact
reasonsforthebloomremainunclear(Hansenetal.2001).2.7
Coastal
zone
and
continental
shelf
2.7.1Descriptionandextentofcoastalandmarinehabitats
Bleaching
The northern coast east of Berbera highlighted extensive coral bleaching, with some reefs
suffering almost totalmortality (Schleyer andBaldwin1999).TheRed Sea coral reefsoff the
coastsofDjibouti,EritreaandSomalia,however,arereportedlyingood,oftenpristinecondition
with3050percent livecoralcoverandtherichestdiversityofcoralandotherreefspecies in
theentire IndianOcean (PilcherandAlsuhaibany2000).SouthernSomaliaalsohasnumerous
smallislandsnorthoftheKenyanborder.Coralbleachinghashadasignificantimpactonmany
ofthe
LMEs
coral
reefs,
especially
during
the
1998
El
Nio.
Acidification
Increasingamountsofcarbondioxidefromhumanactivitiesthat isenteringtheoceansviathe
atmosphere sinceabout1750 is increasing theacidityandcausedapHdecreaseof0.1units.
Increasing atmospheric CO2 concentrations are causing further acidification and the average
ocean surface pH is about 8.1. Projections suggest a further acidification over this century,
leadingtoareductioninaverageglobalsurfaceoceanpHofbetween0.14and0.35units(IPCC
2001).
Coralmining
Limestone(coralreef)miningexistsmainlyonsoutherntownssuchasMarkaandBarawe.The
community in these two townsmine limestoneon the shore for theuse forhousebuilding.
Limemaking is also,used forwhitewashingandhousedecoration.Thisactivityofmining for
limestonerenderscoastalinundation,sedimentationanderosion.
Sandmining
It isverypopular inallcoastal townsand fishingvillages inSomalia. It ismixedwithcement,
coastalsoilandgravel tomakebricks.Thisdestabilizes thecoastalsanddunes,whichalready
causedseverecoastalerosion.
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Urbanexpansion
Somanywardisplacedsettlersbuiltnewhouses,hospitals,telecommunicationsystems,schools
andallotherfacilitiesessentialfortheirlivesalongthecoastalareas.Theexpansionofthecities
increasesgarbagedumpingontheseashore.Duetolackofenvironmentalgovernance,almost
allthecoastalcitiesandtownsusethebeachesasrubbishdumpingsite.Becauseofthat,alotof
rubbish accumulated on the beaches as a sediment. All sorts of runoffs such as animal and
humanwastes, fertilizers and other degrading elements inflict damage towater quality and
healthofecosystemsingeneral.
Nutrientloading
Humanactivitiesrelatedto foodandenergyproductionhavegreatly increasedtheamountof
nutrient pollution entering the Somali current Large Marine Ecosystem which causes
eutrophication of coastalwaters and degradation of fisheries habitats.When phytoplankton
bloomsdieandsinkdecompositionofthebiomassconsumesandmaydepletedissolvedoxygen
inthebottomwaterresultinginhypoxicordeadzones.
2.7.2Productivity
of
the
coastal
zone
(corals,
mangroves,
seagrass
beds)
Mining,pollutionandtheexploitationofreef fishesandotherorganisms forfoodandornamentaltrade,tourismandsiltationcausesdegradationofcoralreefs
Overfishinganddestructivefishingpractices Coralbleaching Sedimentation Thesystematicremovalofmangrovesforfuelandconstructionpurposes Conversionofmangroves for agricultural, industrial and residentialuses and salt and
limeproduction, aswell asoverharvestingofmangrovewood forbuilding, charcoal,
firewoodandtradepurposes
Destructionofmangroveforestsisalsoleadingtoheavyoffshoresiltationandreductioninnutrientsforoffshorespecieswithconcomitantreductioninfishcatches
Dragnetsandpollutionthreatenseagrassbeds Reducedfreshwateroutputsduetomining,dammingandirrigation Sealevelrisecouldcausefloodingofestuaries,seagrassbedsandmangroves Increasingcoastalpopulationsandinadequatemonitoring2.9Macrofauna(stateofbiologicalknowledge)
2.9.2Fishandfishresources
Theproblem
of
Illegal,
Unregulated
and
Unreported
(IUU)
fishing
is
particularly
acute
in
Somalia,
largely asa resultof civilwarsand the lackofa functioning government for the lastdecade
(GelchuandPauly2007).
Foreignfishingfleetsoftenfishcloseinshoreandinterferewithartisanalfleetscausingconflicts
(FAO2005).
Overharvesting: there is ineffective governance in this sector due to the lack of a central
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government.
Destructive fishing practices also pose a threat to coastal fisheries and coral reefs. In areas
aroundcoralreefs,unsustainableexploitationisrelatedtoincreasingfishingeffortandtheuse
ofdestructivegear(McClanahan1996,Oburaetal.2000).Theuseofdynamite,pullseinenets,poisons and selective fishing on certain species andjuveniles arewidespread in the region
(UNEP/GEF2002).
Offshore trawling grounds, especially those targeting prawns, are showing signs of
overexploitationwithexcessivebycatchanddiscards.Asignificantfractionofshrimpbycatchis
composedofjuvenile fishandonaverage,only32%ofthebycatch isretained,withadiscard
rateofupto1.8tonespertrawlerperday(KMFRI2003).
Purseseinesyieldahighbycatchofcetaceansandsharkgillnetsalsocatchnontargetspecies
such as turtles, dugong, dolphins and whales (Van der Elst and Salm 1998, Pilcher and
Alsuhaibany 2000). The by catch of shark gill nets in Somalia also includes sawfish (Pristismicrodonan),which areof global concern as theyhavebeenoverexploitedworldwide (IUCN
1997).
Exotics:seesection2.9.6
Pollution:seesection2.6.2
2.9.4Reptiles
Opportunisticharvestingofgreenturtles
Incidentalgillnetcapture
Degradationofnestingbeachesthroughpollutionandotherhumanactivities
2.9.5Birds
Seabirdsareoftencaughtasbycatchinfisheries
Habitatsofendangeredspeciesarebeingdestroyed
2.10Longtermpredictedatmosphericchanges
lackofknowledge
poormodels
dataavailability
coefficientofvariation
3.HUMANENVIRONMENT
3.1Coastalandislandpopulationscurrentstatusandtrends
Increasingpressuresontownsleadstopoorhealth,degradationofsurroundingresources.
Infrastructurecannotcopewiththeratesofurbanexpansion
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3.2Sitesofreligiousorculturalsignificance
Destructionofmuseumsandlootingduringthewar
Looting,sellingofartifactsandillegaldiggingstofundwarparties
3.3Humanhealth
Lackofhumanresourcecapacityisamajorprobleminexistinghospitals.
Accesstohospitals,schoolsandotherhealthservicesislimitedasaresultmortalitiesratesare
highandlifeexpectancyislow.
Literacylevelsarestilllowduetoloweducationlevels.
Genderdisparitiesstillexistintheeducationsystem.
Thereislimitedaccesstocleanwaterfordrinkingandcooking.
PrevalenceofHIV/AIDS,choleraanddiarrheaishigh.
Foodsecurityislowduetoerraticclimateconditionsandpoliticalinstability.
3.4Infrastructure
Thenew
wireless
technologies
are
based
on
costly
satellite
networks
Someareasarestilllackingelectricity,meaningthatinternetcannotbeusedhere.
Theremainingpoliticalinstabilityintheregionhampersdevelopmentandmaintenance.
4.COASTALLIVELIHOODSSmallScaleFisheries
Weaknesses:
Noeffectivegovernmentandfisheriesmanagementinstitutionalstructures Nomanagementcapability; Noimplementationoffisheriespolicy; Noenforcementcapabilities; Nostructurestoenablesmallscalefisherstoinformpolicydevelopment; Isolationofindividualfishingcommunities; Nohistoricalfisheriesdata; Verylimitedandlocalizedcurrentfisheriesdatacollection; Very limitedmarketingcapabilities verypoor roadsvery little infrastructureand few
airports;
Verylimitedstockstatusinformation; Fishinggearveryold,unsafe,ornotfunctional; Problematicalsupplyandservicingofallfishinggearandequipment; Noboatrepairmaterials,toolsorfacilities; Limitedunderstandingofresourceuse,processingandmarketing issuesbyfishersand
traders;
Greatpovertythatmakessustainableuseissuesirrelevant; Piracyactivities; Land based security issues NGOs and foreign aid unwilling to commit staff and
resources;
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Very large range of makes and models of fishing gear but particularly inboard andoutboardengines;
Limitedshelteredvessel launchsitesandnovessel launch/retrieval facilities.Fewsafeanchorages;
Mostartisanalfishingvesselsunderpowered; Noscientific informationavailable Destructionofarchivesand librariesmuseumsand
universitiesnodocumentsexist,nobaselineinformation,noresearchnoguidelines;
Verylimitedcommunicationfacilitiesandaccesstoalltypesofinformation.Threats:
Industrialanddomesticpollutionofmarineenvironmentinmajorcentresoil,chemicals,wasteproductsandeffluents,sewage,ballastwaters,fuels
Pollutionatallfishingvillagesoffalandwastedumpedintothesea Probableoverexploitationofmost fisheries sectors inshore andoffshore: sharks and
demersalsectorsparticularlyvulnerable
Competitionwithforeignindustrialfisheries Illegalunregulatedunreported(IUU)fishingbymanyhundredsofforeignvessels ExploitationofanddamagetoinshoreresourcesbyIUUfishingsector Nomonitoring,controlandsurveillanceoffishingfleets Widespreaduseofgillnets(driftandbottomset)inmostfisheriessectors Lack of functional government and institutional structures difficult to develop and
implementfisheriespolicyandratifyconventions
Possibledumpingoftoxicwastesinshallowcoastalwaters. BeachsandminingatBerbera,saltminingatHaafun,limestoneminingatMogadishu Catchment degradation and poor agricultural practices in the Juba area lead to
enrichmentandsiltationandconsequentcoastalimpacts.
Piracy Internalsecurity
Tourism
Weaknesses
Verylimitedtourisminstitutionalcapacity Limitedfollowthroughoftourismpolicy No effective government and institutional structures conducive to tourism
development.
Cultureofviolenceandconflict Tourismproductlacks(positive)uniquesellingpoints. Verylimitedtourismmarketingcapabilities. International aid sector currently unwilling to commit resources and personnel to
developingtourisminfrastructure.
Limitedcoastaltourismactivities. Limitedcommunicationinfrastructure
Threats
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Cultureofpovertyassociatedwithsubcultureofcrime. Limitedparticipatoryinputsfromtourismoperatorsinpolicydevelopment. Remainingisolatedforextensiveperiodfrominternationaltourismmarkets. Financial sustainability of accommodation sector, ultimately bottoming out due to
erraticandlowtouristvolumes.
Extensive period of being perceived by the international market as a negativedestination.
Reputationofadestinationusedfordumpingoftoxicwastesincoastalenvironment. Overexploitationofmarineresourcestypicallyusedfortouristcuisinecrayfish,etc. Destinationassociatedwithpiracy. Noprovisionofguaranteedsecurityforanyforeigner. Destinationknownforillegalweaponsmarket.
4.4AgricultureandForestry
Weaknesses
Longhistoryof conflict and continuing instability countrywide combinewith climaticuncertaintyandvariability,includingpropensitytorecurrentdrought,tolimitscopefor
familiestodevelopandsustaintheirlivelihoods
Threats
Continuing conflict and insecurity in central and southern Somalia, including fromAlQaeda presence in the country, suggest that any project or foreignintervention
successeswillbeverylimiteduntilthingssettledown
Illegal offshore fishing and piracy in Somali coastal waters are also a problem forstabilityandgoodgovernanceofthemarineenvironment
4.5EnergyWeaknesses
Insecurityandrecurrentarmedconflicts FailedStateandrampantrivalriesamonggovernancebodies,ateverylevel Countryseconomymostlyinformal,unabletocontributetoStatebuilding Piracyasprinciplecoastalindustry LackofbasicinfrastructuresinmostoftheCountry
Threats
Developmentofoiloperations(drilling,exploitation,transport,processing,storageetc)inaninsecureenvironmentincreasesaccidentsandoilspillrisks.
Involvementofprivatecompaniesfromemergingcountriesarenotalwaysrespectfulofenvironmentalandsocialregulations.
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4.6PortsandCoastalTransportWeaknesses
Absenceofgovernment,lawandorder. PirateactivitiesinSomaliandadjacentwaters. Lowlevelsofeconomicactivity. Aridclimaticconditions
Threats
Continuedmarginalisationduetoviolenceandcorruption
4.7CoastalMiningWeaknesses
Devastatedinfrastructureasaresultofprolongedcivilwar Piracyasprinciplecoastalindustry Noenvironmentauthority Nocoastalmanagementzone
Threats
Ongoingcivilwar
6.PLANNINGANDMANAGEMENT
6.3Areasunderspecialmanagement
Thereisalackofadequatelegislationandmeansofenforcementtopreventtheoverutilization
ofitsnaturalresources.
Mostimportantconservationsitesaresufferingfromovergrazingandoverexploitation.
There is a lack ofMPAs to conserve the countries valuable shallow and deepwatermarine
ecosystems.
Levelsofpoachingarehigh.