Conditions for credit
A) Presence at lectures (3x missing allowed)
B) Presence and activity in one (only) lab
C) Submission of the final lab report (digital only, doc, docx, pdf) on
Lab
porous media column contamination and decontamination
calculation of the experiment, report with figures and conclusions
Lectures posted on the webserver of Dept.143:
http://storm.fsv.cvut.cz/ Přednášky on-line
Exam is taken without notes, calculators, cell phones computers etc. Pre-printed
questions are given
Exam is written – max of 2hrs
Exam consists of 8 questions (10 points each) and one calculation (20 points)
of total 100 max.
Classification ECTS A B C D E F
Points 100-90 89-80 79-70 69-60 59-50 < 50
Relative to old system 1,0 1,5 2 2,5 3 4
Requirements for the exam
Introduction to
Soil Contamination and
Remediation
• importance of soil, soil formation
• soil substances, water in soil
• terminology, classification
List of topics
Introduction to soil science, soil formation; soil properties
Introduction to soil chemistry; chemical reactions in soil
History of soil contamination and remediation; impacts of contaminants on
the environment and health
Contaminants transport and fate; experiments and analytical detection
methods
Types of contaminants
Site survey, field methods of contaminants detection
Soil remediation methods: Pump-and-treat Systems, Solvent Vapor
Extraction, Air Sparging, Soil Flushing
Migration Covers, Cut-off Walls, Solidification / Stabilization
Reaction barriers: Funnel and Gate Systems, Permeable Treatment Walls
Natural Attenuation; new methods of soil remediation
Bioremediation, fytoremediation
Lab of contamination and remediation
Lab protocol preparation
Exam
Soil – interface of systems
soil is natural unit generated
at the interface of
lithosphere and atmosphere
under mutual process of
pedogenetic factors
soil is binding element in
between anorganic and
organic matter and live
organisms on the Earth
soil is desribed according to
soil horizons
hydrosphere
+
atmosphere
pedosphere
Soil
Atmosphere Vegetation
Bedrock
Weathering
Nutrient release
Fertility
Texture
Colour
looseningporesNutrients
Water
pH
Carbon binding
Roots
Nutrients
Organic matterCO2
H2O
Wind
Heat
Rain
Light
Soil profile –
vertical
section
combining
all soil
horizons
Soil horizon
designations
layers with
properties
different from
other adjacent
layers
Basic nomenclature
litter layer
A (humus)
B (leached)
C (bedrock
substrate)
R (bedrock)
Ecological functions of soil
• Supports growth of plants and live of
other organisms (phytoedaphon and
zooedaphon)
• Recycles nutrients and exhausts
• Governs flow and purity of water
• Serves as building material
Minerals
• Composed of O,Si, Al – nearly 90% of solid soil mass
• Up to 50% of soil volume
• Made of particles of different sizes
• Determine chemical reaction
• Originate from bedrock material
Pedogenetic factors
• Bedrock(determines properties of soils, important is ability of rock to weather)
• Topography (steepness, orientation, altitude)
• Climate (moisture and temperature, precipitation - rainfall)
• Organisms(determine creation and existence of soil)
• Time
granite
40cm
A
Bw
C
slate
1.5m
A
AB
C
Bss1
Bss2
fine
dark
coarse
light
Impact of bedrock at soil genesis
Impact of climate at soil genesis1. Temperature
2. Rainfallannual distribution of rain
topography
vegetation cover
permeability
limestone +
dry climate
40cm
A
R
limestone +
wet climate
60cm
A
B
C
rainforest,
tropical
warm, wetArid,
semi-
arid
Desert,
perma-
frost
10cm 1m >1m 15m
Impact of climate to soil layering
A
C
B
A
C
R
B
A
C
R
B
A
C
R
Weatheringphysical
1. Frost
2. Irregular heating
3. Swelling - drying
4. Abrasion (water, wind, ice)
5. Root growth
1. Hydratation
2. Hydrolysis
3. Dissolution
4. Carbonation
5. Complexation
6. Oxidation-reduction
Water is necessary
in all of the chemical
reactions!!!
WeatheringChemical
Impact of organisms on the
soil formation
• Vegetation
–
• Microbes
–
• Soil animals
• Humans
Type of rooting, leaf chemism, amount
Decomposition of the organic matter
- Building of pathways for water flow
Tillage, compaction, changes of the
landscape – drainage, aplication of
chemicals, pollution
phyto- a zoo-edaphon - examples
mites
actinomycetes
vertebratesworms
bacteriafungi
protozoa
•intensive
agriculture✓fertilization
✓pesticides
✓toxic compounds
•landfills
•urbanization
•deserti-
fication
•erosion
✓forest clear-
cutting
✓agriculture
Human impact on soils
natural plants, agriculture crops:
fields, meadows, pastures, forests
trees – forests, rainforests
Vegetation
Time development
of the soil profile
“highly
mature
profile”
“mature
profil”
“young
profile”
maternal
bedrock
1m>1m
15m
C
C
A
C
A
Bw
C
A
Bt1
Bt2
Soil texture and soil structure
aggregates – spatial
composition
texture – %clay, silt, sand
determined, can not be
changed
chemical bonds of humus units
at the clay minerals can be
changed (good/bad)
texture classes soil types
Texture and structure are parameters of
plynná
fáze -
půdní
vzduch
pevná
fáze -
minerály
kapalná
fáze -
voda
pevná
fáze -
organická
hmota
`
soil solids
texture relates to
mineral part of
solid phase only
structure is
dependent on
mineral and
organic part of
solid phase – very
important for
binding pollutants
gaseous
phase
soil air
liquid
phase
soil
water
solid
phase -
organic
matter
solid
phase –
minerals
Bulk and particle density
Macroscopic characteristics of solid phase
pores
solid
phase
volume of pores =
Vp
vol. solids = VS
To
tal v
olu
me
= V
weight of solids = ms
rd = [M/ L3]ms
V
Bulk density
rs = [M/ L3]ms
Vs
Particle density
V = Vs + Vp
Bulk and particle densityMacroscopic characteristics of solid phase
texture categoriesgravel, sand, silt, clay
determined as differences % of weights of grain size intervals
jíl
<0.002 mm
písek
0.063(0.05)
-2 mm
štěrk
> 2 mm
prach
0.002-
0.063(0.05)
mm
`
silt
sand
clay
gravel
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
D [mm]
W [
%]
Particle size distributiondescribes weights and grain sizes (indirectly pore sizes)
cumulative property– weight fraction of the whole sample
where all grains are smaller than diameter D
gravelsandsiltclay
Texture classes according to clay, silt, sand
Triangle diagram of soil texture (NRSC USDA)
Grain size and particle surface
area• area of grain surface at unit wight
– 1 g sand ~ 0.1 m2
– 1 g silt ~ 1 m2
– 1 g clay ~ 10-1000 m2
•
•
smallest
largest
higher surface area – higher electrical charge for attraction of
water, nutrients, contaminants
coarse soils have bigger pores – but lower porosity (0.3-0.5)
fine soils have smaller pores – but higher porosity (up to 0.7)
Fine clay
surface area is
approx
~10000x higher
than medium
coarse sand of
of the same
weight
Soil structure
• primary spatial constellation of soil into clumps
called aggregates or pedons
• binding factors are plant root (their excrements),
organic matter and clay minerals,
• sandy and rocky soils do not create aggregates
• most important factor of aggregation is organic
matter
• stability of aggregate is their endurance towards
breakdown under external impacts
Characteristics of soil
structure
• Type: Shape of aggregates
crumbs, blocky, prizmatic, platy..
• Size:
– fine (microaggregates) <0.25 mm
– coarse (makroaggregates) >0.25 mm
• Degree of structure:
– without st., weak st., highly developed st.
• General
– lots of clay strong structure, big blocks
– lots of organics crumbly structure
impact of roots on soil stability
Sulzman
Tomášek, M; Atlas půd České Republiky ČGÚ, Praha 1995
Classes of soil structure
crumbs polyedricI. II.
Tomášek, M; Atlas půd České Republiky ČGÚ, Praha 1995
blocky
II.
III.
III.
IV.
prizmaticplaty
Classes of soil structure
Soil water
• Necessary for plant growth
• Basic medium for transport of matter
• Basic media for clean up of soil
• Is found in soil as– chemically bound and
hygroscopic (grain wrap),
– capillary (capillary forces in pores)
– gravitational (temporal, outflows after cessation of the water source- rain, flood, snowmelt)
Dipoleextremely good solvent
Water in soil
moisture of porous media
solids
poresair
water
Water in soil
water content, moisture
solids
poresair
water
Va
Vw, mw
Vs, ms
Vp
w = [-]mw
ms
gravimetric water content
q - volumetric water content
q = [-]Vw
V
Relation between w and q
w . rd = q . rw
w . rd
rw
q =
for rw = 1 g/cm3:
q = w . rd
Capillarity
modfifed from Hotron and Jury 2004
At the planar interface
water-gas, the pressure
is pr
pr
At the curved interface
the pressure is p = pr
ps
For spherical surface additional (capillary)
pressure ps causes the curvature:
ps =2s
R
Capillarity
modified from Kutílek a kol. 1994
At the interace water-gas-solid
contact angle g occurs
g
g g =
0
g
g
g
ideal wetting wetting non-wetting
in multiphase systems (water-oil-gas-solid – more combinations of fluid behaviour)
Retention curve of soil moisture
•soil system of pores can be ideally substituted by the bundle of
capillary tubes of different diameters
•applying suction of equivalent suction head hi all tubes thicker than ri
diameter are drained, thinner than ri stay filled with water
hi
ri
w
(kPa)
qv (%)
0
-10
-100
-103
-104
-105
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Retention curve of soil moisturetransfers soils suction into moisture – bulk water content
bulk water content
so
il suction
it is series of equilibrium of
water content in the soil
sample are relating soil
suction (capillary potential)
Drainage branch of the retention curve-
sand tank
for suction of 0-100
(max.200) cm - of the water
column, limited by room
dimension (height),
theoretically limited by 1 Bar
(approx 10 m of suction)
h
open container
free water
level water table
difference
causes suction
in the clay tank
Drainage of the retention curve –
pressure chamber
for suction 100-15000 cm
(0.01-1.5 MPa, 0.1-15 Bar)
water dripping
SOIL CORES
PRESSURE
TANKPRESSURE
TANK
REDUCTON
VENTS,
MANOMETER
COMPRESSOR
Methods of soil moisture measurement
Direct method
Gravimetric
Potential methods
Resistivity
Tenzometric
Electromagnetic methods
Frequency domain reflectometry
Time domain reflectometry
Radiometric methods
Neutron, Gamascopic
Satellite methods
Saturated flow
Darcy, H., 1856. Les Fountaines de la Ville de Dijon
Henry Darcy (1856) solved the filtration
problem for fountains in Dijon.
He found that flow of water through the
column of sand is dependent:
•proportionally to the difference of hydrostatic
pressure at the ends of the column
•improportionally to the length of the column
•proportionally to the cross-section of the
column
• depends on the coefficient for the given
material
Henry Darcy
Darcy’s law
Q = flow of water per unit time [L3.T-1]
A = flow area perpendicular to flow [L2]
Ks = saturated hydraulic conductivity [L.T-1]
rH/L = hydraulic gradient
valid in fully
saturated area -
aquifer
L
ΑΔΗΚQ S
LH2
H1
datum
z1
z2
h1
h2
Hi = hi+zi
Measurements of Ks
Experiments with constant gradient
Saturated hydraulic conductivity - Ks
units of Ks [ L.T-1] frequently (m.s-1), (cm.d-1), (cm.s-1)
Ks characterizes water-soil relation
r soil propeties only:
k = Ksn [ L2] freequently (m2), (cm2)
n is kinematic viscosity (of the fluid)
Permeability - k
Darcian velocity – averaged velocity per whole cross-sectional area
of the sample
Mean pore velocity – averaged velocity per pore cross-section only
Preferential flow velocity – velocity due to preferential pathways –
flow through fraction of the area, velocities in orders of magnitude
higher than Darcian velocity
Saturated hydraulic conductivity Ks and
permeability scale
k(c
m2)
K(c
m.s
-1)
K(m
.s-1
)Císlerová a Vogel, 1998
cla
y
sil
t
silt-
san
d
san
d
gra
vel
Function of the unsaturated
hydraulic conductivity
Function of the
unsaturated
hydraulic
conductivity K(q) –
part of the pores is
saturated with
water, part if filled
by air
K(q)=Ks. Kr (q)
qs – saturated
water content
Průběh hydraulické vodivosti podle vlhkosti
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7
objemová vlhkost (-)
hy
dra
ulic
ká
vo
div
os
t (L
/T)
funkce nenasycené hydraulické vodivosti
Ks - nasycená hydraulická vodivost
Ks
qs
function of unsaturated hydr.conductivity
Ks – saturated hydraulic conductivity
volumetric water content (-)
hyd
rau
lic
co
nd
uti
vit
y (
L/T
)
Measurement of the unsaturated hydraulic
conductivity in field
Global soil regions
US –Soil Taxonomy USDA
European soil regions
ReferencesKutílek, M., Kuráž, V., Císlerová, M. Hydropedologie, skriptum ČVUT 1994
Fitzpatrick, Soils: Their formation, classification and distribution
Sulzman E.W. : CSS 305 Principles of Soil Science: http://cropandsoil.oregonstate.edu/classes/css305/lecture_sched.html
Departamento de Edafología y Química, Agrícola Universidad de Granada,España Unidad docente e investigadora de la Facultad de Cienciashttp://edafologia.ugr.es/
Tomášek, M. Atlas půd České republiky, ČGÚ 1995.
http://eusoils.jrc.it/Data.html Soil & Waste Unit, European Communities –soil maps
FAO World reference base for soil resourceshttp://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/docrep/W8594E/W8594E00.htm