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Diagram of the Nervous SystemDiagram of the Nervous System
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NeuronsNeurons
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AxonsAxons
Thread-like extensions from the cell body
Tube-like fibers that carry impulses away from the soma to the dendrites
Myelin coating
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Multiple SclerosisMultiple Sclerosis
MS destroys myelin sheaths of axons
This can cause erratic and uncoordinated behavior
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DendritesDendrites
Short, thin fibers that stick out from the cell body
Dendrites receive impulses or messages from other neurons and send them to the cell body
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Characteristics of NeuronsCharacteristics of Neurons
They cannot replace themselvesDamage is permanentThreshold of excitation
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The Neuron ConnectionThe Neuron Connection
Synapse junctionNeurotransmittersOpen chemical
“locks”Inhibition
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How a Neuron FiresHow a Neuron Fires
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NeurotransmittersNeurotransmitters
Acetycholine (memory, movement)Norepinephrine (memory, learning)Serotonin (sleep, appetite)Endorphins (inhibits pain)Dopamine (learning, emotions, movement)
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Types of NeuronsTypes of Neurons
Ascending vs. descending tractsAfferent/Sensory neuronsEfferent/Motor neuronsInterneurons/Connecting neurons
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Voluntary vs. InvoluntaryVoluntary vs. Involuntary
Somatic nervous system (voluntary activities)
Autonomic nervous system (involuntary activities)
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Divisions of the Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous SystemAutonomic Nervous System
Sympathetic nervous system
1. Fight or flight2. Speeds up heart
rate/O2 supply and blood pressure
3. It constricts some arteries, relaxes others
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Parasympathetic Parasympathetic Nervous SystemNervous System
Works to conserve energy
Helps us recover from strenuous activity
Reduces heart rate and blood pressure
Returns us to a normal resting state
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The BrainThe Brain
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Divisions of the BrainDivisions of the Brain
Hindbrain, located at the rear base of the skull
Contains the cerebellum, the medulla, the pons
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The MidbrainThe MidbrainLocated just above
the ponsFunction: relays
sensory information Brain stem and
reticular activating system
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The ForebrainThe Forebrain
The hindbrain and forebrain compose the brain’s central core
Thalamus (information relay)
Hypothalamus (motivation, emotion)
Higher-thinking processes
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Higher-Thinking ProcessesHigher-Thinking ProcessesCerebral cortexCerebrum
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The Limbic SystemThe Limbic System
Found in the core of the forebrainIt has a number of different parts: 1. Thalamus 2. Hypothalamus 3. Amygdala 4. Hippocampus
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Hemispheres of the BrainHemispheres of the Brain
The cerebrum has two hemispheres
The corpus callosum
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Two HemispheresTwo Hemispheres
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Righthanded vs. LefthandedRighthanded vs. Lefthanded
Handedness—a preference for using one hand
Not an absolute90% of people in the
U.S. are righthandedTheories:
environmental vs. genetic
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Problems Problems Associated With Being a LeftyAssociated With Being a Lefty
Autism and dyslexiaSchizophreniaMental retardationAlcoholismLife expectancy
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Lobes of the BrainLobes of the Brain
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Lobes and Their FunctionsLobes and Their FunctionsFrontal: planning of movements,
working memoryTemporal: hearing, advanced visual
processing, memoryOccipital: visionParietal: body sensationsPrimary motor cortex: fine motor control
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Split-Brain SurgerySplit-Brain Surgery
Pioneered by Roger Wolcott Sperry 1913–1994
Used to correct epileptic seizures
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Side EffectsSide Effects
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The Spinal CordThe Spinal Cord
Dura matterArachnoidPia matterCerebrospinal fluidGray vs white matter
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Looking Inside the BrainLooking Inside the Brain
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Techniques Techniques Used to Look Inside the BrainUsed to Look Inside the Brain
Electrical recordingsLesioningElectrical stimulationBrain imaging
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Electrical RecordingsElectrical Recordings
Electro-encephalograph (EEG)
Hans Berger
Brainwave patterns
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LesioningLesioningBrain tumors,
strokes, head injuries all cause brain damage
H. Gardner, 1975Limitations/
experiments with animals
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Electrical Stimulation of the BrainElectrical Stimulation of the Brain
ESB involves sending a weak electrical current into a brain structure in order to stimulate it
The current mimics brain wave voltageMost ESB research is done on animals
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Brain Imaging TechniquesBrain Imaging Techniques
CT (computerized tomography) scansPET (positron emission tomography)
scansMRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
scans
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The CT ScanThe CT Scan
Computerized tomography (CT) scan: a computer-enhanced x-ray of brain structure
Assembling the imagesCT/least expensive
procedure
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Image From a CT ScanImage From a CT Scan
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PET ScansPET ScansPositron emission
tomography (PET) scan
Radioactive chemicals are used as markers
Provides a color-coded map of the brain
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MRI ScansMRI ScansMagnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) scan uses magnetic fields, radio waves, and computerized enhancement
Much more detailed than a CT scan
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The Endocrine SystemThe Endocrine System
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The Pituitary GlandThe Pituitary Gland
Master gland of the body
It contains 3 lobesThe pituitary
regulates metabolism by stimulating other glands
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Anterior Lobe/Pituitary GlandAnterior Lobe/Pituitary Gland
Somatotrophic hormones
MidgetDwarfGiantAcromegaly
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JustinJustin
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Other Pituitary HormonesOther Pituitary Hormones
TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone)ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone)Gonadotrophic hormone
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Posterior Lobe HormonesPosterior Lobe Hormones
ADH (anti-diuretic hormone)Oxytocin
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The Thyroid GlandThe Thyroid GlandLargest gland in the
endocrine system trachea and larynx
Located at the junction of the trachea and larynx
Produces thyroxine
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Thyroid DisordersThyroid DisordersCretinismMyxedemaGoiter
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The ParathyroidsThe Parathyroids
The four smallest glands in the endocrine system
They regulate the body’s calcium and phosphorus balances
Tetany
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The Thymus GlandThe Thymus GlandLocated behind the breastboneIts function is not clearly understoodImmune system
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The Adrenal GlandThe Adrenal Gland
Located on top of each kidney
Composed of the adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla
Steriods, cortisone, aldosterone
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The Adrenal MedullaThe Adrenal MedullaDepends on the
hypothalamus and the autonomic nervous system for regulation
Epinephrine/adrenaline
Noradrenalin
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The PancreasThe Pancreas
Produces insulin and glucogen to control sugar metabolism
Diabetes
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Ovaries and TestesOvaries and Testes
Testes in males, ovaries in females
TestosteroneEstrogen and
progesterone
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Brain InjuriesBrain Injuries
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Brain TraumaBrain Trauma
A physical accident where the head receives a severe blow.
Auto accidents, sports injuries
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Types of Head TraumaTypes of Head Trauma
ConcussionContusionLaceration
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ConcussionConcussion
Temporary loss of consciousness
Causes no permanent damage to skull or brain tissue
Flaccid paralysisSymptoms
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ConcussionConcussion
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ContusionsContusionsActual bruising of neural tissueMay cause a comaLoss of speech, convulsions,
disorientation, delusions
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LacerationsLacerations
The most serious of brain injuries
A foreign object such as a bullet enters the skull
Brain tissue is destroyed
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James BradyJames Brady
Reagan’s press secretary
Shot March 30, 1981
Wound to the headBrady Bill
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Cerebral LacerationCerebral Laceration
The case of Phineas Gage
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Vascular AccidentsVascular Accidents
Injuries to brain tissue resulting from blockage or breaking of cranial blood vessels
Cerebral thrombosis/strokeStrokes are the most common CVAsEffects
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Cerebral HemorrhagesCerebral Hemorrhages
Blood vessels in the brain rupture (aneurysm)
Blood spills directly onto the brain tissue
Coma,convulsions
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Brain Injuries Brain Injuries Resulting from SurgeryResulting from Surgery
Techniques for neurosurgery
Transorbital lobotomy
Early lobotomy procedures
Closed standard lobotomy
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New Neurosurgery TechniquesNew Neurosurgery TechniquesA thin wire with a tiny
magnet on its tip is inserted through the femoral artery into the brain
Helmet-shaped overhead magnet
Endovascular surgery
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Brain InfectionsBrain Infections
Parkinson’s diseaseMeningitisEncephalitis
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Parkinson’s DiseaseParkinson’s Disease
Degenerative CNS disorder
Rigidity, tremors, gait difficulties
OnsetGender
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Two Types of Two Types of Parkinson’s DiseaseParkinson’s Disease
Idiopathic PD (primary)Secondary PD (trauma,
cerebrovascular accidents, tumor, drug-induced)
StagesCauses
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MeningitisMeningitis
An infection of the cerebrospinal fluid and the lining of the brain
It spreads very rapidly, and can cause brain damage and kill in less than 24 hours
Rifampin
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Symptoms of MeningitisSymptoms of Meningitis
In adults: vomiting, headaches, drowsiness, seizures, high fever, joint pain, stiff neck
In children: arching back and neck, blank stare, refusal to eat, cold hands and feet, vomiting
Diagnosis/spinal tap
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EncephalitisEncephalitis
Inflammation of the brain by a virusHerpes simplex virus (HSV)TransmissionMilder forms of encephalitis
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Symptoms of EncephalitisSymptoms of Encephalitis
Fever, headache, poor appetite, loss of energy
Severe symptoms also include nausea, vomiting, stiff neck, pupils of different sizes, personality changes, seizures, problems with speech and hearing, double vision, memory loss, and coma.
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Preventing EncephalitisPreventing Encephalitis
Proper childhood immunizationsAvoiding insect bitesEliminate standing water around the
house
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ParesisParesis
Syphilis of the brain
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Causes of ParesisCauses of Paresis
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SpirocheteSpirochete
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The Stages of SyphilisThe Stages of Syphilis
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DiagnosisDiagnosisChancre (A small sore that appears on the
lips or sex organs; disappears without treatment
Causes rashes, skin infections, flu-like symptoms, hair loss
Diagnosis of cerebrospinal fluid
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Symptoms of ParesisSymptoms of ParesisPupil of eye does not respond to lightTremors of fingers, tongue, eyesLoss of motor controlShuffling gaitPersonality changes
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Nature vs. NurtureNature vs. NurtureHeredity: the genetic transmission of
characteristics from parents to offspring (nature)
Nurture (environment and learning)Sir Francis GaltonJohn Watson
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Genes and BehaviorGenes and Behavior
The basic units of heredity are the genes
Genes are inherited
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Twin StudiesTwin StudiesIdentical twins
develop from a single fertilized egg (monozygotic) and share the same genes
Twins reared in different environments
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Fraternal TwinsFraternal TwinsDevelop from two
fertilized eggs (dizygotic)
Their genes are no more similar than those of siblings
Twins grow up in same environment
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University of Minnesota ExperimentUniversity of Minnesota Experiment
Identical twins separated at birth and reared in different environments
From phobias to hobbies
Heredity may contribute more than we ever believed
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Hal and JerryHal and Jerry