Situational metonymies
Günter RaddenHamburg University
Situation metonymies 119.04.23
Structure
1. What is metonymy?
2. Cognitive steps in communicating
a (metonymic) situation
3. Examples of situational metonymies
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1. What is metonymy? – my view
Is metonymy
(i) a matter of contiguity?
(ii) a matter of substitution?
(iii) a reference-point phenomenon?
(iv) an inferential process?
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– No.
– No.
– Yes, and…
– Yes, and…
(i ) Metonymy is not a matter of contiguity
but a matter of association“Metonymies may be called natural inference schemas, i.e. easily activatable associations among concepts that can be used for inferential purposes.
(Panther & Thornburg 2004)
“[…] metonymy is a process of co-activation of strongly associated concepts within single integrated conceptualisations […]
[…] metonymy is an ‛embodied’ mental process occurring naturally and unconsciously as a result of synaptic links in the parts of the brain supporting mental and linguistic activities.”
(Bierwiaczonek 2013: 37 and 256)
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Bidirectionality of metonymic relations
CONTAINER FOR CONTENT: This bottle is sour.
CONTENT FOR CONTAINER: You did it, mate, says Morgan, clinking beers with Wallace.
POSSESSOR FOR POSSESSION: My wife was towed away.
POSSESSION FOR POSSESSOR: Arthur married money.
REPRESENTATION FOR OBJECT: It’s not raining on this map.
OBJECT FOR REPRESENTATION: I like Monet’s water lilies. (‘I like the paintings of water lilies by
Monet’)
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Is there a limit to metonymic associations?
How can these metonymies be described?
- Flight agent asking passenger: “Do you want window or aisle?”
‛object for space near space for object’ = Proximity ICM?
- Passenger at railroad station asking where the ticket office is:
“Where can I get train tickets?” “Trains are over there.”
‛vehicle for permit for agent for place’ = ?
- Wife to husband: “Can you set the table, dear?”
‛object for part of the object (table top) for objects supported by object (on) for action involving objects’ = ?
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(ii) Metonymy is not a matter of substitution but
evokes both source and targetThere are a lot of good heads in the university. (= not just ‛people’, but ‛intelligent people’)
He’s got a Picasso in his den. (= not just a ‛painting’, but ‛Picasso’s work in relation to the artist’)
“Metonymic concepts allow us to conceptualize one thing by means of its relations to something else.”
(Lakoff & Johnson 1980)
“An idea that has been activated does not merely evoke one other idea. It activates many ideas, which in turn activate others.”
(D. Kahneman 2011:52)
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Interaction view of metaphor(I.A. Richards 1936, Max Black 1955)
“When we use a metaphor we have two thoughts of different things active together and supported by a single word, or phrase, whose meaning is a resultant of their interaction. The reader is forced to connect the two ideas.” (I.A. Richards, Max Black)
“Metaphor is a special case of blending, where elements of two input spaces are projected to form a third space, the blend, with its own distinct properties.” (Langacker 2009: 342)
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Metonymy as conceptual blending
Conceptual integration – also known as “blending” or “mental binding” – is a mental operation whose uniform structural and dynamic properties apply over many areas of thought and action, including metaphor and metonymy.
(Turner & Fauconnier 2003)
Metonymy involves the conceptual blending of the concept evoked by the source term and the concept evoked by the intended target.Blending is an online real-time process that creates new meaning through the juxtaposition of familiar material.
(Alac & Coulson 2004)
Situation metonymies 919.04.23
Metonymy as conceptual blending
Integration of Part-Whole Vital RelationsWe point to a picture of a face and say “That’s Jane Doe,” not “That’s the face of Jane Doe.” We have constructed a network mapping the individual to the picture of what seems to us her most salient part, her face. In the blend, the face is projected from one input and the whole person from the other. In the blend, face and person are fused: The face is the personal identity. (Fauconnier &Turner 2002:97)
Situation metonymies 1019.04.23
person face
person with her personal identity
Metonymy as conceptual blending
The conceptual blending approach accounts for the fact that the metonymic source concept is not simply erased but is fused with the metonymic target concept, giving rise to emergent meaning in the metonymic blend.
The shoes were neatly tied.
Situation metonymies 1119.04.23
the shoes the laces
the laces were neatly tied
WHOLE FOR PART
the shoes as a whole were neat
(iii) Metonymy is a reference-point phenomenon - and there is
more to it.
Situation metonymies 12
Conceptualizer
Ref.Pt.
target
Dominion
metonymy
targettargettarget
target
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Last year, Greece was rescued with a package worth €110 billion
Situation metonymies 13
Conceptualizer
Greece
economy
dominion
PLACE FOR ?
budget
state
banks
people
Potential metonymic targets: the people, the banks, the state, the budget, the economy, etc.
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PLACE FOR
INSTITUITIONPLACE FORINHABITANTS
PL
AC
E
FO
R S
TA
TE
PLACE FOR ?
(iv) Metonymy is an inferential process
“Metonymies may be called natural inference schemas, i.e. easily activatable associations among concepts that can be used for inferential purposes.”
(Panther & Thornburg 2004)
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“Please turn on your phone after
the performance.”audience: metonymic inferences
verbalized FINAL SUBEVENT FOR WHOLE EVENT FOR INITIAL SUBEVENT
announcer: metonymic reasoning
- conceptualization: WHOLE EVENT FOR POTENTIAL SUBEVENTS
- frame: theater performance
- virtual inference: FINAL SUBEVENT FOR WHOLE EVENT FOR INITIAL SUBEVENT
- verbalization: “Please turn on your phone after the performance.”
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‛turn phone off’‛turn phone on’ ‛public disturbance’
Cognitive steps in communicating a conceptual situation
(i) People typically conceive of a situation as a whole gestalt.
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Journalese
Der Opel hatte nicht auf Rot geachtet – er war auch nicht nüchtern.
‘The Opel hadn’t paid attention to the red light – it wasn’t sober either’
(Westdeutsche Zeitung)
Auto flüchtet auf drei Rädern.
‘Car escaped on three wheels’ (Rhein-Zeitung)
Nach dem Unfall sei der etwa 30 bis 40 Jahre alte Volvofahrer ausgestiegen und habe kurz mit dem Notarztwagen gesprochen.
‘After the accident the 30 to 40-year-old Volvo driver was reported to have gotten out of his car and having had a word with the emergency ambulance’ (Nordwest-Zeitung)
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Cognitive steps in communicating a conceptual situation
(i) People typically conceive of a situation as a whole gestalt.
(ii) Any situation evokes a complex network of associated concepts.
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Network of associated concepts of a situation
and situational metonymies
Situation metonymies 20
relation
situation-internal
subevent
time
situation type
reality - potentiality
place
situation
ICM
ICM
situation-external
thing
situational core
manner
property
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thing
means
cause
situation
THING-EVENT metonymies
THING FOR PROPERTY: I am just a student
THING FOR EVENT: We’ve always had a nose for the very best.
OBJECT FOR EVENT INVOLVING THE OBJECT: Mary began the book.
THING FOR THE USE OF THE THING: The treadmill burns 200 calories an hour.
OBJECT INVOLVED IN ACTION FOR AGENT: couch potato
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PROPERTY metonymies
PROPERTY FOR A THING: You’re insulting my intelligence.
EVENT FOR PROPERTY OF A THING FOR THE THING: pick-up truck
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MEANS and MANNER metonymies
MEANS FOR ACTION: He sneezed the napkin off the table.
MANNER OF PERFORMING AN ACTION FOR THE ACTION: I’ll be brief.
MANNER OF PERFORMING AN ACTION WITH A THING FOR A PROPERTY OF THE THING:
Our investors are more interested in long-term, stable, reliable returns than in the fast buck. / fast car
TIME FOR MANNER: permanent talk
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CAUSAL metonymies
CAUSE FOR EFFECT: beautify the garden.
CAUSE FOR PURPOSE: donate money for a good cause
EFFECT FOR CAUSE: happy hour ‘times when restaurants reduce their prices on alcoholic beverages’
PRECEDENCE FOR CAUSE: Who started the fight?
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SITUATION-TYPE metonymies
STATE FOR EVENT: Paolo Soleri is dead at 83.
SEEING FOR MAKING SURE: Can you see to it.
HABIT FOR SPECIFIC EVENT: Would you care for something to drink? –I never drink.
EVENT FOR STATE: Please fasten seatbelt while seated.
MOTION FOR STATE: The poplar is after the oak.
PROCESS FOR ACTION: The door opened ‘someone opened the door’
RESULT FOR ACTION: Have another cookie.
ACTION FOR RESULT: He is catching a bird./ dermatologically tested
(It doesn't say who or what skin it was tested on. And it doesn't even mean that They PASSED the test.)
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POTENTIALITY, ACTUALIT, REALITY
metonymiesPOTENTIAL FOR ACTUAL: I can see your
point./I must admit
you are right.
ACTUAL FOR POTENTIAL: Do you play the piano?/
He is an angry person.
ACTUAL FOR ASSIGNED: Is someone sitting here? –
No, the seat is empty.
SUBJECTIVITY FOR REALITY: That was a penalty.
APPEARANCE FOR REALITY: He looked puzzled.
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TIME metonymiesTime-internal:
PAST FOR PRESENT: What was your name?/ This was the supermarket.
POINT IN TIME FOR PERIOD: At the moment there is no news available.
PASSING TIME FOR PRESENT: currently ‘presently’
PROXIMATE TIME FOR DISTANT TIME: Today's syntax is tomorrow's morphology.
Time-external:
EVENT FOR TIME: Christmas; Tok Pisin: yu gat hamas krismas?
THING FOR EVENT FOR TIME: I explained a few classes ago.
THING FOR ACTIVITY FOR TIME TO DO THAT ACTIVITY: She left about two beers ago.
TIME FOR EVENT: 9/11
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PLACE metonymies
PLACE FOR EVENT: Greece was not supposed to happen. /Not longer after, Hutton was on the plane./ Jack is on the phone.
EVENT FOR PLACE: He drove through a red light./ bus stop
TIME FOR DISTANCE: From Cologne to Vienna it is ten hours by train.
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Cognitive steps in communicating a conceptual situation
(i) People typically conceive of a situation as a whole gestalt.
(ii) Any situation comprises a complex network of associated concepts.
(iii) In “thinking for speaking”, the speaker decides on how to code the situation she wants to communicate in a given language in accordance with principles of cooperation.
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Thinking for speaking
Thinking for speaking - a specialized form of thought that is mobilized for communication (Slobin 1996)
English: assert trajectory, imply end-state
The boy climbed the tree.
Spanish: assert end-state, imply trajectory
El niño está subido en el árbol.
‛the boy is climb-PART en [= in/on] the tree’
[= the boy is in a state of having climbed the tree]
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Cognitive steps in communicating a conceptual situation
(i) People typically conceive of a situation as a whole gestalt.
(ii) Any situation comprises a complex network of associated concepts.
(iii) In “thinking for speaking”, the speaker decides on how to code the situation she wants to communicate in a given language in accordance with principles of cooperation.
(iv) A communicative act is (of necessity) metonymic and hence requires the speaker to gauge its adequacy by anticipating the hearer’s inferential task.
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Iconicity in syntax (Posner 1986)
(a) Mr. Smith stopped in front of his house. He waved to a passing neighbor and got out of his car.
(b) Mr. Smith stopped in front of his house. He raised his arm and smiled to a passing neighbor. He pulled the handle of the door of his car, pushed the door open, swung his legs out, heaved his body out, and shut the door.
Inference:
The degree of painstakingness in the presentation of actions conveys the degree of painstakingness of the actions presented.
DETAIL IN FORM FOR DETAIL IN MEANING
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Cognitive steps in communicating a conceptual situation
(i) People typically conceive of a situation as a whole gestalt.
(ii) Any situation comprises a complex network of associated concepts.
(iii) In “thinking for speaking”, the speaker decides on how to code the situation she wants to communicate in a given language in accordance with principles of cooperation.
(iv) The communicative act is (of necessity) metonymic and hence requires the speaker to gauge its adequacy by anticipating the hearer’s inferential task.
(v) The hearer constructs the speaker’s intended meaning via metonymic inferences.
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3. Examples of situational metonymies
(i) POTENTIAL FOR ACTUAL
(ii) PAST FOR PRESENT
(iii) SUBEVENT FOR WHOLE EVENT
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(i) POTENTIAL FOR ACTUAL: Inert perception
We can see the moon.
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ABILITY:state withpotential
actualization
STATE OF PERCEPTION
We can see the moon.
Input 1 Input 2
Blend
actualizedSTATE OF
PERCEPTION
ABILITY
We are able to see the moon (because it reflects
light from the sun).
STATE OFPERCEPTION
INSTANTANEOUSPERCEPTION
We see the moon.
INSTANTANEOUSPERCEPTION
can see
see
ecological motivation
able to see
Verbs of perception and cognition
Google search“I see the moon” 3,920,000“I can see the moon” 1,280,000
“I see a mouse” 246,000“I can see a mouse” 17
“I hear a mouse” 27,700“I can hear a mouse” 174,000
“I heard the slam” 308,000“I could hear the slam” 22
“I understand the problem” 2,750,000“I can understand the problem” 7,020,000
“I now understand the problem” 226,000“I can now understand the problem” 15
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restaurant script
(ii) PRESENT FOR PAST:Compression of time
Wer bekam die Gulaschsuppe? ‘Who received the goulash soup’ (Comrie 1985:20)
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pastordering
presentbeing served
blend
pastordering
being served
Compression of times of preceding and present events in the past
IMMEDIACY FOR DISTANCE
(VIRTUAL) PRESENT FOR PAST: narrative present, historical present, scientific present, headlines,etc.emergent meanings: immediacy, liveliness
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IMMEDIACY FOR DISTANCE:(VIRTUAL) PRESENT FOR PAST/FUTURE
Narrative present
A wife asks her husband, “Could you please go shopping for me and buy one carton of milk and if they have avocados, get 6.”
A short time later the husband comes back with 6 cartons of milk.
The wife asks him, “Why did you buy 6 cartons of milk?”
He replied, “They had avocados.”
Headline
David Beckham retiresEngland’s most capped player and arguably the most famous player on the planet, David Beckham, announced his retirement on 16 May, 2013.
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IMMEDIACY FOR DISTANCE
(VIRTUAL) PRESENT FOR PAST: narrative present, historical present, scientific present, headlines,etc.emergent meanings: immediacy, liveliness
(VIRTUAL) PRESENT FOR FUTURE and HYPOTHETICALITYscheduled future: emergent meaning: present availabilityconditional clause: If it rains tomorrow, we will stay in the house. The protasis is construed as factual relative to a hypothetical future configuration. (Fauconnier 1997) emergent meaning: present reasoning (?):
(VIRTUAL) PRESENT FOR RECURRENCErecurrent (habitual) events fused into one eventemergent meaning: characteristic property: John smokes.
(VIRTUAL) PRESENT FOR TIMELESSNESSgeneralizations, general truths, minutes, captions, stage directions, etc.emergent meaning: present validity
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(iii) WHOLE SITUATION – SUBEVENTS
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whole situation
co-present subevent successive subevents
concomitant
salient
peripheral
CO-PRESENT SUBEVENTS: SALIENT and CONCOMITANT
SUBEVENTS
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Situational ICM comprising two co-present blended subevents
salientsubevent
concomitantsubevent
SOUND FOR NOISY AND FAST
MOTIONSOUND
MANNER
MOTION
MANNER FOR ROUGH
MOTIONThe airplane bounced its way to a halt.
MOTION
ACTION
SOUNDThe shop assistant rang up the purchase on the cash register.
SOUND FOR SLOW AND TRADITIONAL
ACTION
The train roared over the mountain tracks.
metonymic highlighting of concomitant subeventand emergent´meaning
VERBAL
NON-VERBAL The queen raised an eyebrow yesterday
NON-VERBAL FOR VERBAL COMMUNICATIONwhen she was told of a play about a man who has a passionate affair with his pet goat.
CO-PRESENT SUBEVENTS:SALIENT and PERIHERAL SUBEVENTS
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Situtional ICM comprising several co-present subevents
subevents
LINGUISTIC COMPETENCE: My wife speaks Finnish = ‘she speaks,
understands, writes and reads Finnish’but: I don’t read Hebrew.
SALIENT SUBEVENT FOR SET OF SUBEVENTS
metonymic highlighting of a salient subevent
speaking, understanding,writing, reading
EVENTS IN FALL 1989: SALIENT SUBEVENT FOR COMPLEX SUBEVENTSfall of the Berlin Wall,
opening of the borders,visa-free travel, freedom of speech, free elections, etc.
When the wall came down = ‘unspecific sum of co-present subevents’
CO-PRESENT SUBEVENTI have been sitting behind the
wheel all day.The interpretation of this sentence involves:
a) PERIPHERAL SUBEVENT EVENT FOR WHOLE SITUATION: sitting behind the wheel = ‘driving’, in particular steering
b) blending of the peripheral (passive) event of sitting behind the steering wheel and the central (active) event of driving
c) emergent meaning derived from sitting: the journey was long, tiring, tedious, boring, etc.
Situation metonymies 4419.04.23
sitting behind the wheel (Google)
Have been sitting behind the steering-wheel for more than six hours today. Driving, driving, driving. It seems that there is nothing more natural than driving. Streets, boulevards, avenues, highways, freeways, backside alleys. Six hours driving without changing places.
(= endless and tiring activity of driving)
From the very first time you sit behind the wheel, your car becomes an important part of your life.
(= first experience of driving)
25% of Britons would sit behind the wheel after drinking alcohol, according to the poll.
(= drinking and driving)
Situation metonymies 4519.04.23
CO-REPRESENT SUBEVENTS: Playing a musical instrument
The ICM of ‘playing a musical instrument’ comprises the following aspects:
1. a musical instrument
four types of instrument according to the means of sound production:
brass, woodwind, percussion, and string instruments
2. the production of sound
3. the production of music by a musician playing a tune on a musical instrument
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Playing a musical instrument in different languages
English: production of music: you play an instrument
Finnish: production of sound: you sound an instrument
Japanese: different means of sound production: you pluck, blow, beat, or sound an instrument
Hausa: one means of sound production: you hit an instrument
Situation metonymies 4719.04.23
Playing a musical instrument in Japanese
String instruments (guitar, violin, viola, harpsichord, piano, organ, accordion, etc.) are ‘plucked’ (hiku).
Brass and woodwind instruments (trumpet, trombone, flute, oboe, recorder, harmonica, etc.) are ‘blown’ (fuku).
Percussion instruments (drum, castanets, tambourine, xylophone, etc.) are ‘beaten’ (tataku).
Percussion instruments that are shaken (maracas, handbell, etc.) are ‘sounded’ (narasu).
Playing any musical instrument in a performance is expressed as ‘musical.performance-do’ (ensoo-suru).
Situation metonymies4819.04.23
Whole situation– subevents
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whole situation
co-present subevent
precondition initial central final
successive subevents
concomitant
salient
end
peripheral
SUCCESSIVE SUBEVENTS FOR WHOLE EVENT “travel” ICM (Lakoff)
“How did you get to the party?”
Precondition: “I have a car.”
Embarkation: “I hopped on a bus.”
Center: “I drove.”
Finish: You park and get out.
End point: You are at your destination
Situation metonymies 5019.04.23
Means of getting to a place
Situation metonymies 5119.04.23
I borrowedDad's car.
I have a car.
I got behind the steering wheel.
EstablishingPrecondition CenterEmbarkationPreconditionMeans
I drove.
by car
You can get here in no time.
I now have adriver's license.
by bus They openeda new bus line.
There is a bus stop close by.
I hoppedon the bus.
I came by bus.
walking I love walking.
I walked over.
Final
I came by car
I jumped into the car.
They have builta new road.
This is within walking distance.
I put on mywalking shoes.
I just boughta new car.
I passed thedriver's test.
Friends alwayslend me their cars.
I tookthe bus.
I came on foot.
SUCCESSIVE SUBEVENTS FOR WHOLE SITUATION:
focus on different subevents
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whole event
precondition initial central finish
Phoning ICM:
end
Just pick up the phone.
I made a phone call.
I slammed down the phone.
We are cut off.
There is the phone.
Paper-gradingICM:
There was a pile of papers waiting to be graded.
I read the papers.
I marked all the mistakes.
I graded the papers.
I returned the papers.
Doctor's visit ICM:
My wife was sick.
She went to see the doctor.
The doctor examined her.
The doctor prescribed green pills.
She is feeling better now.
Booking ICM (in soccer games): Caution and removal from the game
Yellow card:
A playing card-sized card that a referee holds up to warn a player for dangerous or unsportsmanlike behavior; also called a caution.
Red card:
A playing card-sized card that a referee holds up to signal a player's removal from the game, presented for violent behavior or multiple law infractions.
Situation metonymies 5319.04.23
The referee gives a card to a player
Situation metonymies 54
Referee Peter Frojdfeldt, right, from Sweden, gives a yellow card to Italy's Luca Toni, second left, during the group C match between the Netherlands and Italy in Bern, Switzerland, Monday, June 9, 2008, at the Euro 2008 European Soccer Championships in Austria and Switzerland.
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SUCCESSIVE AND CO-PRESENT SUBEVENTS in the booking ICM
Precondition: A player displays dangerous or violent behavior.
Initial, preparatory subevents:
a) The referee walks over to the player.
b) The referee dips/ reached into his pocket/ fumbles in his pocket.
c) The referee pulls out a red card/ fishes a red card out of his pocket.
Central subevents: performative booking act:
a) The referee holds up/ brandishes/ waves the red card.
b) The referee shows/ gives/ wields/ issues the player the red card.
c) The player is shown/ sees/ receives/ gets the red card.
d) The player picks up/ earns/ draws a red card.
Final, ensuing subevents: the player is booked:
The player is sent off/ banished from the field/ removed from the game.
Situation metonymies 5519.04.23
Some unresolved, thorny problems
1. What is the target of situational metonymies?
If the metonymic target is taken to be the central subevent, e.g. I drove in the ‘getting to a place’ ICM, then I hopped on the bus would be metonymic, but I drove would not.
If the metonymic target is taken to be the ICM, then all subevents including the central one (I drove) would metonymically stand for the ‘getting to a place’ ICM.
2. If the central subevent is taken to be the metonymic target, what counts as a central event? (e.g. holding up a card/ showing a card/ giving a card?)
3. Are metonymies language specific or conceptual, or both? For example, is the English expression play an instrument metonymic even when there are no alternative expressions available in English?
Situation metonymies 5619.04.23
Summarizing conclusions:Four suggestions for future
research on metonymy- The important notion of association in metonymy needs to be
supplemented and substantiated by psychological and neurological research.
- The metonymic vehicle deserves more attention, especially inits interaction with the metonymic target and its contribution to emergent meaning.
- The motivation of a given metonymy and constraints on metonymic processes are central issues in a cognitive approch to metonymy.
- The speaker’s stance in conceptualizing and producing metonymies deserves as much attention as the hearer’s stance in inferring their meaning.
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ReferencesBierwiaczonek, B. 2013. Metonymy in Language, Thought and Brain. Sheffield: Equinox.
Comrie, B. 1985: Tense. Cambridge: C.U.P.
Fauconnier, G. and M. Turner. 2002. The Way We Think. New York: Basic Books.
Herrero Ruiz, Javier. 2011. The role of metonymy in complex tropes: Cognitive operations and pragmatic implications. In R. Benczes, A Barcelona, and F. José Ruiz de Mendoza, eds., Defining Metonymy in Cognitive Linguistics: Towards a consensus view, 167-93. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins.
Kahnemann, D. 2011. Thinking Fast and Slow. London: Penguin.
Lakoff, G. and M. Johnson. 1980. Metaphors We Live by. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Panther, K.-U. and L Thornburg. 1999. The potentiality for actuality metonymy in English and Hungarian. In K.-U. Panther and G. Radden, eds., Metonymy in Language and Thought, 332-57. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins.
Posner, Roland. 1986. Iconicity in syntax: The natural order of attributes. In P. Bouissac, M. Herzfeld, and R. Posner, eds., Iconicity: Festschrift for Thomas A. Sebeok, 305-337. Tübingen: Stauffenburg.
Slobin, D. 1996. From “thought and language” to “thinking for speaking”. In Gumperz and Levinson, eds., Rethinking Linguistic Relativity,70-96. Cambridge: C.U.P.
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