Chapter: 2
Theoretical Perspective of MotivationThe globalization and social and economical changes,
technological transformation has resulted in the growth of organization
sizes and complexity. In modern complex organization, the lack of
morale, motivation, communication etc. of public personnel or employee
are resulting to ineffective management of public affairs and
unsatisfactory delivery of public services are causing to poor
performance of public administrative system. The better performance of
public administration depend upon the effective utilization of human
resources but the problem of effective utilization of human resources is
once again the problem of work motivation, morale communication etc.
Due to the increasing and changing scenario of social and economical
nation, it is much necessary to look into the factors which are
responsible for the optimum utilization of man and material to achieve
the goal. A multitude of organizational variables and the factors
affecting the works performance of the administration and officials has
received the attention of several social scientists. The motivation to
work which speaks of the health of mind of the workers as well as
organizational health has been given due attention and discussed by
classical thinkers and psychologists.
This chapter is intended to discuss the concepts and some of the
most popular theories and the factors influencing the administration and
officials such as the concept of motivation, moral, communication,
leadership, management, administration, performance etc. and to
highlights their inadequacies and to work out the development to put up
their best performance and successful accomplishment of organization.
Performance was results from the interaction of physical, financial and
human resources. The first two are inanimate they are translated into
‘productivity’ only when human elements is involved. However the
38
human elements interjects a variables over which managers has limited
control. When dealing with the inanimate factors of production, a
manager can accurately predict the input-output relationship. In dealing
with employees however and intangible factor of will, volition or freedom
of choice is introduced and worker can increase or decrease their
productivity as they choose. This human quality gives rise to the need
for positive motivation. In fact, the level of performance of employee in
an organization is a function of his abilities and motivation. Where there
is a strong positive motivation, the employees’ output increase but
where there is a negative or weak positive motivation, his performance
level is low, so one of the key elements of management and
administration are motivation.
As Mc Gregor has stated that “the task of a manager or
administrator is to arrange organizational conditions and method of
operations so that people can achieve their own goal best by directing
their own efforts towards organizational objectives” successful
supervisors will be those who integrate the goal oriented action of
individual, worker with the pursuit of organization goal. The goal of the
individual and the organization can be achieved through stimulating
worker toward productive performance called motivational process”.
Thus, the performance depends upon the arousing action sustaining the
activity in progress and regulating the pattern of activity. It attracts and
initiates action and also serves as a factor in the continuation of activity
until objectives have been attained.
Concept of Motivation:
Motivation has been variously defined by scholars. Usually one or
more of these words are included in the definition as desire, wants,
aims, goals, drives, motives and incentives. Motivation is a Latin word
meaning ‘to move’. Motivation is the process of channeling a person’s
inner drives so that he wants to accomplish the goals of the
39
organization. It is a kind of behavioral concept by which we try to
understand why people behave as they do. It concerns those dynamic
processes which produce goal oriented behaviour. Dubin describes
motivation as the complex of forces starting and keeping a person at
work in an organization. It is something that moves the person to action
and activity and suggests that there are forces inside the person starting
and maintaining activity, whether we call them drives, instinct or wishes,
they can be described as mechanism of the organism. ‘In simple words
motivation is will to work’.
Berelson and Steiner state that “A motivation is an inner state that
energizes, activates or moves and directs channels behaviour towards
goals”. Standford and Wrightman describe a motive “thus it is
restlessness, a lack, a yen, a force. Thus motivation is the process of
creating organizational conditions which will impel employees to strive
to attain organizational goal. According to Lillis – motivation is the
stimulation of any emotion or desire operating upon one’s will and
prompting or driving it to inspire and encourage people to take required
action. Tolman observes “more specifically the term motivation has
been called intervening variables”. As motivation has been defined by
many social thinkers and psychologist in these own way but all
definitions indicates motivation is a goal oriented work or motivation is a
kind of energy in every man required to booster to expend energy to
achieve the goal, the boosted may be a kind of reward incentives etc.
“We may define motivation as a willingness to expend energy to
achieve a goal or reward. It is a force that activates dormant energies
and set in motion the action of people”.
Nature of Motivation:
Motivation is not an easily observed phenomenon ‘generally we
observe an individual’s actions and then interpret his observed
behaviour in term of motivation. This leaves a wide margin of error. Our
40
interpretation does not necessarily reveal the individuals true motives
motivation as things stand now the ‘whys’ of behaviour cannot be
explained easily. The following points reveal the complexity involved in
understanding true motivation. Let us examine some of the factors that
complicate this process.
Individual Differ in Their Motivation:
There is only one ‘economic drive’, which determines behaviour
in untenable. The goal to which an individual aspires is many and so are
his motivations. Different people may have different vision in behavior in
the same manner. Thus, three different ways underlines the same
behaviour likewise.
Unconscious Motivation:
Frued uncovered this phenomenon while analyzing his critical
patient. He found that in many ways man is like an ice berg, only a
small part is conscious or visible the rest is beneath the surface. This
below the surface concept is unconscious motivation or we can say it is
a kind of nebulous feelings of a man.
Motivation Change:
Motivation of each individual change from time to time even
though he may continue to behave in the same way for example – a
temporary worker may produce more in the beginning to become
permanent. When made permanent he may continue to produce more
this time to gain promotion and so on.
Complex Nature of Motivation:
Motivation is apparently a complex subject. It is difficult to explain
or predict the behaviour of workers or employee. Thus, the introduction
of an apparently favourable motivational device may not necessarily
achieve the desired end if it brings opposite motive into play. In a
41
factory, when blue green lighting was introduced to reduce eye strain,
the output of men worker increased but the same time women workers
decreased. On investigation, it was found that the latter dislike the
change in lighting because they felt that the new type of lighting had
made them look simple ghastly (very bad), that’s why one manager is
expected to look into the complex factors that go into the behaviour of
employees carefully and start appropriate steps to motivate them.
Type of Motivation:
If a manager want to get work performance by his employees, he
has to either hold out a promise of reward for then for doing work in a
better or improved way or he may constrain them by instilling fear in
them or by using force to do the described work or to achieve the work
performance. In other words, he may utilize a positive or a negative
motivation. Both these type are widely used by management
administration. A positive motivation involves the possibility of
decreased motive satisfaction, while negative motivation involves the
possibility of decreased motive satisfaction.
Positive or Incentive Motivation:
Positive motivation is generally based on rewards. According to
Flippo “positive motivation is a process of attempting to influence other
to do your will through the possibility of gain or reward”. People work for
incentive in the form of four ‘Ps’ of motivation that is – Praise, Prestige,
Promotion and Pay Cheque. Positive motivation in fact includes: (i)
Praise and credit for work done; (ii) A sincere interest in subordinates
and individuals; (iii) Competition; (iv) Participation; (v) Pride; (vi)
Delegation of responsibility; (vii) Appreciation and (viii) Pay. According
to Peter Drucker, “the real and positive motivators are responsible for
placement high standard of performance, information, adequate for self
control and the participation of the worker as a responsible citizen in the
42
plant, community. Incentive motivation is the “Pull” mechanism. It has its
own benefits. The receipt of awards, due recognition and praise for
work well done definitively leads to good team spirit, cooperation and
feeling of happiness. Now, we should know what types of incentives are
which promotes to work performance or to develop motivational skills.
Incentive: An ‘incentive’ or ‘reward’ can be anything that attracts
a workers attention and stimulate him to work. In the word of Burack
and Smith “An incentive scheme is a plan or programmes to motivate
individuals or group performance. An incentive can be monitory rewards
but it may also include a variety of non-monetary rewards or prizes.
Incentives in general are important motivators their effectiveness
depends upon three factors drivers, performance value and satisfying
value of the goal objects.
Classification of Type of Reward/Incentives:
Rewards or incentives can be classified into: (i) Direct
Compensation; (ii) Indirect Compensation.
Direct Compensation: Direct compensation includes the basic
salary or wage that the individual is entitled to for his job, over time work
and holiday premium, bonuses based on performance, profit sharing
and opportunities to purchase stock option etc.
Indirect Compensation: It includes protection programmes
(Insurance plans, pension) pay for time not worked but these are
maintenance factors rather than reward components. Since they are
made to all employees irrespective of performance, they will tend to
retain people in the organization but not stimulating them to greater
efforts and higher performance.
These reward also termed as ‘Intrinsic’ reward and ‘Extrinsic’
rewards. Intrinsic rewards are those that an individual receive for
himself. They are largely a result of the job that worker does. At the
43
same time extrinsic reward are direct compensation, indirect
compensation and non-financial rewards.
Now the controversy prevails over the issue if ‘Money’ only
motivates the individuals the supporter says: “Money potentially be an
effective motivator regardless of the level one has attained and the
organization or the amount of money is earning. At the same time for
some people money can be instrumental in satisfying esteemed and
recognition needs well basic physical needs. Motivating people with
financial rewards is not a picker’s game. A company or organization
may give certain employees very large raises or bonuses if pay is to
motivate performance. Contrary to these observations, Allenport
observes that “Money incentive alone do not bring about the desired
motivation”. Everyone is not ‘economic man’ so much as their ‘ego
man’. They want else, each credit for work done, interesting task,
appreciation, approval and congenial relationship etc. This satisfaction
they want even more than high wages and job security.
It have been noticed that the most of the employees respond to
monitory incentive only to certain points, beyond this point money
becomes ineffective as an inciter of action. It is because of two reasons:
(a) Money is not having the ability to satisfy an urgent need; (b) The
worker may respond to money as a motivator if he believes the benefit
will be greater than expenses incurred by him. If the benefits perceived
are less than the personal cost, he will not respond to money as an
incentive any further. In effect a breakeven point is reached in which
additional money become marginal or even undesirable because of the
efforts and conditions demanded to earn the added income.
Using money as a motivator may decrease intrinsic motivation.
To use money and other extrinsic rewards as effective motivators, they
must be made contingent upon performance. However, in two cases
intrinsic motivation may increase: (a) if the monitory reward closely
44
follows performance so as to be reinforcing, (b) the monitory reward
should be function of employees work behaviour.
Wage Incentives:
The term wage incentive has been defined differently by different
authors. “It is a term which refers to objectives in the external situation
whose function is to increase or maintain, some already initiated activity
either in duration or in intensity”. According to Hummel and Nickerson,
“it refers to all the plans that provide extra performance in addition to
regular wages for a job”. Florance observes, “it refers to increased
willingness as distinguished from capacity incompliant do not create by
only aim to increase the rational momentum towards productivity”.
Wage incentives are extra financial motivation. They are designed to
stimulate human efforts by rewarding the person over and the time rates
remuneration for improvement in the present or forgotten result. A wage
incentive scheme is essentially a managerial device of increasing work
productivity with workers by rewarding them financially for their
increased rate of outfit. We may define a wage incentive as a system of
payment unless, which the amount payable to a person is linked with
his output. Thus, the term incentive has gradually acquired a wide
connotation and includes all the possible factors, besides canonic
grains which can possibly motivates human being towards better and
greater performance.
Negative or Fear Motivation:
It is a based on force and fear. Fear causes persons to act in a
certain way because they are afraid of the consequences if they don’t. If
worker does not work they are threatened with lay-off or demolition. In
other words fear motivation is a push mechanism. Negative motivation
has certain limitation through its use only the minimum of effort is put
into avoid punishment, moreover the imposition of punishment for
45
quality result in frustration among those punished, leading to the
development of maladaptive behaviour, punishment also errant the
hostile state of mind and an unfavourable attitude to the job. Moreover,
it may result in lower productivity because it stands to dissipate such
human assets as loyalty, cooperation and spirit de corps.
Self Motivation:
In any organization one must motivate oneself before one
motivates other. One of the most common deferent to human actions is
that of tired feeling. This tired feeling is due to emotional reactions
within oneself. The things that affect the conscious mind and are
generally known as anxiety are:
(a) Monotonous work
(b) Driven by boss
(c) Bad physical conditions
(d) Does not get along with associates
(e) Dissatisfaction with work or achievement
(f) Under constant strain
(g) Gets no real rest at home, worried about holding the job
(h) Financial troubles.
Beside these some other factors also effect the sub-conscious
mind are known as inner-conflict. This factor indicates that a person is:
(a) Unwilling to work
(b) Wants to be tired to have an excuse for failure
(c) Crave sympathy
Anxiety and inner-conflict may be reduced by:
(a) Making the job more interesting
46
(b) Thinking constructively
(c) Making the best possible use of one’s strong point and not
dwelling on weakness, which should be corrected as far as
possible?
(d) Adopting oneself to the situation
(e) Acquiring a sensible and worthwhile philosophy of life
Thus, one motive oneself by setting certain objectives and goes
before oneself.
Group Motivation:
The motivation of group is a as important as self-motivation.
Others and be well motivated when they are informed of ideas/plans
inventions, or systems “nothing can be done, no act can be undertaken,
no decision made, no thinking process brought to a real conclusion
unless until the act of communication is made and inherent part of the
undertaking. This communication of ideas/plans etc. can be made
effective when certain personal qualities have been developed. The
qualities are honestly, fairness, integrity, truthfulness, loyalty, stability,
ability to assume, responsibility and give and take constructive criticism
and compromise when necessary. A group can be motivated by
improving human relations and dealing with people in a human way by
developing the will to do, by encouraging people to feel involvement in
their work and by giving them an opportunity to improve their
performance and by complementing or praising them in dealing with
others. It must be borne in mind that the greatest return can be obtained
when each member of a group is properly motivated. Therefore,
motivation must be used in ones day to day activities.
Steps in Motivation:
47
Jucius M J in personal management observed that the following
steps should be adopted in motivation.
(a) Sizing up: This involves ascertaining motivational needs. All
employees needs motivation but varying times and in varying
degrees. For example: one may need proper facilities for the
education of children. Other may want higher education for them.
One may take pride in producing quality work. Stress at size of
sage must therefore be led up as individual differences.
(b) Repairing a set of motivating tool: This requires a selection of
specific tools of motivation. An executive from personal
experience and from the experience of others and with the help of
the personnel of department may draw up a list of the devices
that may motivate different type of people under different
circumstances.
(c) Selecting and applying motivators: The executive should
decide about the words, the tone of voice, the gestures etc., to be
used and make a necessary rehearsal for their proper use.
Besides, it has also to be considered where and whom motivation
is to be applied. The place and timing for this purpose are
important.
(d) Feedback: The feedback system finds out that whether an
individual has been motivated with the applied motivating device,
if not, some other device may be applied.
(e) Variability: It says that the method of motivation should not be
the same but should change according to circumstances and also
it should be known the one set of motivator will not be effective
for everybody or for the same person over a period of time.
(f) Attainability: It is necessary to establish goals which are
reasonable and attainable. When such goals are attained,
48
employees satisfaction is achieved unattainable goal often
frustrate people.
(g) Participation: The desirability of participation of those to be
motivated ensures that their cooperation is enlisted. This reduces
suspicious of management’s motivational aims.
(h) Proportioning Rewards: Motivation should be in proportion to
the efforts made.
(i) The Human Elements: Motivation appeals to the emotions. The
executive who is most successful as a motivator can trance his
success in variably to his skill in dealing with other feelings.
(j) Individual Group Relationship: Motivation must be based on
group as well as individual stimuli.
(k) Situational: Motivation must be based on sound managerial
theory.
Techniques of Motivation:
There are certain techniques of motivation which can be used by
the managers/administrators. Here we can categories these techniques
in two categories that re: (i) Financial Motivators; (ii) Non-financial
Motivators.
Financial Motivators:
As per this techniques money can never be overlooked as a
motivator and such motivational technique is directly or indirectly
connected with money whether in the form of wages or salary, bonuses,
profit sharing, medical reimbursement etc. Economists have tended to
place money high on the scale of motivation. On the other hand
behavioural scientists tend to place it low and said it is kind of need that
is quickly satisfied. But in reality this is not true. The reason is that
money is more than just a medium of exchange. It is more than a
49
vehicle through which one can satisfy other higher order need. For
example which a person goes to buy a car, he is doing more than
spending his money, he is buying at least in his own eyes – prestige,
recognitions, and a visible symbol of his achievements. He uses money
to satisfy some of higher order needs – self actualization, ego and
social need beside the safety psychological need, for this reason money
is sometime is regarded as the most esteem need and most reliable
motivators. But the Glitterman has said, ‘Money is so subtle instrument
that the ultimate effect of money itself is not easier to identify than is an
egg in an omelet. Moreover, money as a motivator tends to be dulled
somewhat by the practice of making sure that salaries of various
managers in a company are reasonable similar or in other words
organization after taking great care to ensure that people on
comparable levels are given same. Further, if money is to be an
effective motivator, people in various positions even though at a similar
level must be given salaries and bonus that reflects their individual
performance. In fact, it appears that unless bonuses for managers are
based to a major extend on individual performance, an enterprise or
organization is not buying such motivation with the manager or
administrator. It is almost certainly true that money can motivate only
when the prospective payment is large relative to person’s income.
Non-Financial Motivators:
(1) Participation: One technique that has been given strong support
as the result of motivation theory and research is the increased
awareness and use of participation in an activity, especially in
that of decision making. This satisfies one’s ego and self esteem
and the need of creativeness and initiative, participation is also
means of recognition it appears to the need for affiliation and
acceptance. Participation may be in regard to:
50
(a) Institutional arrangements for worker participation in
decision within undertaking (work councils and joint council
bodies).
(b) Participation of worker in management organs (especially
in managing welfare facilities).
(c) Participation at the shop-floor and at the board level.
(2) Job Enlargement and Whole Job Concept: According to
Strauss George and L.R. Syles, “It implies the instead of
assigning one man to each job, a group of men can be assigned
to a group of jobs and then allowed to decide for themselves how
to organize the work such changes permit more social contacts
and greater control over the work process”.
(3) Job Loading: Job loading technique implies the job more
interesting, A horizontal job loading assumes that if employees
are given more work at the same level at which they are working
they will be motivated to work harder also be more satisfied with
their work but in a vertical job loading changes in jobs include
larger area of responsibility intrinsically more interesting. The
worker is motivated because his job is more challenging and
more meaningful.
Herjberg F. has completed a check list of steps involved in
vertical job loading which includes the motivators that can be expected
from each steps.
Principles of Job LoadingSl. No.
Principle Motivation Involved
1. Remove some controls while retaining accountability
Responsibility and personal achievement
2. Increase the accountability of Responsibility and recognition
51
individuals for own work
3. Give a person complete natural unit of work (division area)
Responsibility, recognition and achievement
4. Grant additional authority to employee, give more job freedom
Responsibility, achievement and recognition
5. Make periodic reports directly available to the worker rather than to the supervisor
Internal recognition
6. Introduce new and more difficult tasks not previously handled
Growth of learning
7. Assign individuals specific or specialized tasks, enabling them to become experts.
Job Rotation:
It implies the shifting of an employee from one job to another so
that monotony and boredom are reduced. The basic objective of job
rotation is to increase the skill and knowledge if the employee about
related job. In job rotation, workers learn to do all the different activities
necessary for an operation or unit work. Sometimes an unpleasant job
is made an entry-level position. Employees can be told that the job is
monotones, but temporary. Another possibility may be to put all dull/job
up for grabs each day. Sleepy or hangover workers may even prefer a
day on a job not requiring much use of their minds. Another possibility is
that physically or mentally handicapped worker might be given simple
jobs.
Job Enrichment:
Job enrichment is a form of changing or improving a job so that a
worker is likely to be more motivated. According to Luthorn’s and Khos
job enrichment can be defined as designing job that includes greater
52
work. Control requires a higher level of knowledge and skill, give the
worker more autonomy and responsibility for planning direction and
controlling his own performance. In the job enrich new job is made more
challenging and interesting.
Quality of Working Life:
One of the most interesting approach to motivation is the quality
of working life programme, which is a system approach to job design
and a promising development of broad area job enrichment but also an
interdisciplinary field of inquiry and action combining industrial and
organization psychology and sociology, industrial organizing,
organizational theory and development, motivation and leadership
theory and industrial relation. The form QWL means different thing to
different people. For example: to worker an assembly time, it may mean
a fair days pay, a safe working condition and a supervisor who treats
him with dignity. To a joining new entrant, it may mean opportunities for
advancement creative tasks and in successful career. As per Prof.
Llyod, it means “the degree to which members of a work organization
are also to satisfy important need through their experience in the
organization.
Review of Literature:
A number of research studies related to motivation, job
enrichment, working conditions, organizational climate and culture and
job satisfaction have been carried out however; there is paucity of
literature and empirical data on motivation and job satisfaction among
the bureaucrats in Indian political and administrative system. Maslow
suggested that there is a ‘hierarchy of needs’ which people progress.
Once a need at one level in the hierarchy is satisfied in an individual, it
ceases to motivate their behavior; instead they are motivated by the
need at the next level up the hierarchy. Though many found the idea of
53
a hierarchy of needs appealing, we should stress that the motion has
not much empirical support (Wahba and Bridwell, 1978). One content
theory which does provide reasonably reliable measures for the needs it
proposes is known as ERG theory (Alderfer, 1972).
Herzberg's two-factor theory is a second theory which makes the
same basic point (Herzberg, and Snydeman 1959). The independent
effect of motivators and hygiene's has been questioned, and at least
one study has demonstrated that both can be related to job satisfaction
and dissatisfaction (Schneider and Locke, 1971). Douglas McGregor
also attempted to illustrate the connection between different models of
motivation and managerial practices (McGregor, 1960). An emphasis
on the role of an individual's cognitive processes in determining his or
her level of motivation is what all process theories have in common.
Individuals can also compare their effort-reward ratio to one that they
experienced at one point in time. Equity theorists assume that this
social comparison process is driven by our concern with fairness or
equity. We perceive effort and reward not in absolute but in relative
terms (Adams, 1965). Recent research (Summers, and Hendrix, 1991)
(Dornstein, 1989) is real rather than laboratory settings supports Adams'
original predictions and confirms equity theory as one of the most useful
frameworks for understanding work motivation. The key role of
employees' perceptions of their jobs is underlined again in the Valence,
instrumentality and expectancy (VIE) theory. This explanation of
employee motivation has been popular since the publication of Vroom's
study (Vroom, 1964).
In a study by Hong et. al. (Long, Luang, Sun & Chiou, 1995),
bonuses, dividends and pensions are the three types of benefit that
were found to have the greatest impact on workers' performance.
Larger firms often offer share ownership schemes as an incentive to
their employees, but Cully et al (Cully, G Dix, A O'Reilly & S Woodland,
54
1999) found that the presence of such a scheme has no measurable
effect upon workers' motivation or performance. Over the past two
decades, a major theme in organizations has been the "reengineering"
of jobs in an attempt to make them more psychologically rewarding
(Pefia and Reis, 2001). Reengineering may involve "job rotation"
(switching employees between tasks to avoid boredom), "job
enlargement" or "job enrichment" (L J Mullins, 1996). Social interactions
with colleagues are an important source of motivation in many jobs. To
some extent these are beyond managers' control, but firms can seek to
reduce the risk of de-motivating personal conflicts occurring, by taking
care during the recruitment and selection process to hire appropriate
individuals who will fit in with a team's culture (Bent, Forbes, Ingram and
Seaman 2002). There is evidence that employees are best-motivated
when they are pursuing specific "goals".".(Cully, Dix, O'Reilly and
Woodland, 1999) also found evidence that regular performance
appraisals and monitoring of individual quality do help to "boost morale"
and improve "workplace well-being". Nearly all employees regardless of
their occupation or their status in an organizations hierarchy are
motivated to some extent by pay (Wiley, 1997).
Faculties appear to have the needs which are the most mature.
The academic environment attracts people who tend to be oriented to
self-initiated, creative behavior. By Aldefer (1972) frustration of growth
(generatively and self-actualization) increase the desires of relatedness
satisfaction, and frustration of related needs lends to the desire for
existence gratification. For instance, frustrated researchers might turn to
affiliation available through teaching, frustrated teachers might move to
another institution, extend their education, or participate more in
administration. MacKeachie (1982), Leander (1982) and Ryan (1982) all
suggest that faculty are intrinsically motivated and have limited positive
extrinsic motivation possibilities. Intrinsic motivation is coincident with
55
the higher levels of Maslow's need hierarchy, while extrinsic motivators
are appropriate for the lower levels of the hierarchy.
Organizational structure, external rewards like promotion, pay
and feedback are examples of extrinsic rewards - which are seen as
somewhat self-defeating when used in a controlling manner. If extrinsic
rewards are used, then faculty may slacken their efforts once full
professorship and tenure have been obtained; such administration may
build in a never-ending spiral of salary increases in hopes of continuing
faculty motivation. However, providing external evaluation in an
informational way can lead to motivation. Slight discrepancies from a
faculty's self image may motivate change; however, large external
evaluation discrepancies are rejected. Finally too little extrinsic
feedback can lead to de-motivation (Sloan, 1997). Csikszenmihalyi
(1982), McClelland et al., (1953), and Litwin and Stringer (1968) all
indicate that intrinsic motivation is reinforced by a slight imbalance in (a)
the challenges to the faculty with (b) the skills the faculty have to meet
the challenge. If the challenge severely outweighs the skills, then
anxiety and frustration occurs; if the challenge (such as teaching a
course multiple time) does not require slightly stretching the skills, then
boredom can occur. Optimally there is an opportunity for growth by
continual slight imbalances between challenges and skills, as shown by
Csikszcntrnihalyi (1991) so that the skill level can evolve to meet a
growing level of challenges.
Deci and Ryan (1982) indicate that intrinsic motivation appears to
work equally well for both teachers and learners. A teacher who is
intrinsically motivated seems to enjoy the activity for its own sake and
has a good chance to get the student to seek the intrinsic rewards of
learning. If a teacher is extrinsically motivated, students might conclude
that learning is worthless in and of it and lacks inherent value.
Whitehead (1929) says that the ideal of a technical education is to be a
56
commonwealth in which work is play, and play is life."
Locke (1986) attempted to capture the affective nature of Job
Satisfaction in his definition "a pleasurable positive emotional state
resulting from the appraisal of one's job or job experiences". Pareek
(1981) states that the final psychological outcome of the person's
working in an organization is the satisfaction he derives from his work
and role. In a research by straw and Ross (1985), it was found that job
satisfaction is a comparatively stable disposition and does not change
over time. Work is inextricably bound with human existence. The
content and context of work should therefore promote, rather than
damage, human dignity. Mumford (1995) analyzed job satisfaction in
two ways. Kanungo (1992) pointed out that managers have the moral
obligation to empower subordinates and thereby promote their growth
and development. The interpretations of the Hawthorne studies
stressed the role of the informal work group and supervisory practices in
shaping employee satisfaction and performance (Mayo, 1933);
(Roethisberger and Dickson, 1939), Hoppock (1935) published the first
intensive study of job satisfaction Rothman (1981) contrasts the security
and financial motives for entering teaching during the depression years
with present-day idealistic and intellectual convictions. Especially other
professions pay equally well or better. The conclusion of Greenwood &
Soars (1973) that less lecturing by teachers and more classroom
discussion relates positively to teacher morale further supports the
importance of higher-order needs. While the relationship between
teacher motivation and student achievement has not yet been
established, the correlation between teacher motivation and student
self- esteem has been shown by Peck, Fox, and Morston (1977).
"Teachers with strong positive attitudes about teaching had students
whose self-esteem was high. Students seem to recognize the
effectiveness of teachers who are satisfied with their teaching
57
performance."
Organizational commitment has an important place in the study of
organizational behavior. This is in part due to the vast number of works
that have found relationships between organizational commitment and
attitudes and behaviors in the workplace (Porter et al., 1974, 1976;
Koch and Steers, 1978; Angle and Perry, 1981). Furthermore, Batemen
and Strasser (1984) state that the reasons for studying organizational
commitment are related to “(a) employee behaviors and performance
effectiveness, (b) attitudinal, affective, and cognitive constructs such as
job satisfaction, (c) characteristics of the employee’s job and role, such
as responsibility and (d) personal characteristics of the employee such
as age, job tenure” (p. 95-96).
Organizational commitment has been studied in the public,
private, and non-profit sector, and more recently internationally. Early
research focused on defining the concept and current research
continues to examine organizational commitment through two popular
approaches, commitment-related attitudes and commitment-related
behaviors. A variety of antecedents and outcomes have been identified
in the past thirty years (Angle and Perry, 1981; Mowday et.al. (1979;
Hall, 1977). Numerous studies found that fob stress influences the
employees’ job satisfaction and their overall performance in their work.
Because most of the organizations now are more demanding for the
better job outcomes. In fact, modern times have been called as the “age
of anxiety and stress” (Coleman, 1976). The stress itself will be affected
by number of stressors. Nevertheless, Beehr and Newman (1978) had
defined stress as a situation which will force a person to deviate from
normal functioning due to the change (i.e. disrupt or enhance) in his/her
psychological and/or physiological condition, such that the person is
forced to deviate from normal functioning. From the definition that has
been identified by researchers, we can conclude that it is truly important
58
for an individual to recognize the stresses that are facing by them in
their career. Some demographic factor may influence the way a
university academic staff act in their workplace.
Management role of an organization is one of the aspects that
affect work-related stress among workers (Alexandros-Stamatios et. al.,
2003).Workers in an organization can face occupational stress through
the role stress that the management gave. Role stress means anything
about an organizational role that produces adverse consequences for
the individual (Kahn and Quinn, 1970). Management will have their own
role that stands as their related. Role related are concerned with how
individuals perceive the expectations other have of them and includes
role ambiguity and role conflict (Alexandros-Stamatios et. al., 2003).
Family and work are inter-related and interdependent to the extent that
experiences in one area affect the quality of life in the other
(Sarantakos, 1996). Home-work interface can be known as the overlap
between work and home; the two way relationship involves the source
of stress at work affecting home life and vice versa affects of seafaring
on home life, demands from work at home, no support from home,
absent of stability in home life. It asks about whether home problems
are brought to work and work has a negative impact on home life
(Alexandros-Stamatios G.A et al., 2003). For example, it questions
whether the workers have to take work home, or inability to forget about
work when the individual is at home. Home-work interface is important
for the workers to reduce the level of work-related stress. According to
Lasky (1995) demands associated with family and finances can be a
major source of ‘extra-organisational’ stress that can complicate, or
even precipitate, work-place stress. Russo & Vitaliano (1995) argued
that the occurrence of stressors in the workplace either immediately
following a period of chronic stress at home, or in conjunction with other
major life stressors, is likely to have a marked impact on outcome.
59
Several studies have highlighted the deleterious consequences of
high workloads or work overload. According to Wilkes et al. (1998) work
overloads and time constraints were significant contributors to work
stress among community nurses. Workload stress can be defined as
reluctance to come to work and a feeling of constant pressure (i.e. no
effort is enough) accompanied by the general physiological,
psychological, and behavioral stress symptoms (Division of Human
Resource, 2000). Al-Aameri AS. (2003) has mentioned in his studies
that one of the six factors of occupational stress is pressure originating
from workload. Alexandros-Stamatios G.A. et al. (2003) also argued
that “factors intrinsic to the job” means explore workload, variety of
tasks and rates of pay. Rapidly changing global scene is increasing the
pressure of workforce to perform maximum output and enhance
competitiveness. Indeed, to perform better to their job, there is a
requirement for workers to perform multiple tasks in the workplace to
keep abreast of changing technologies (Cascio, 1995; Quick, 1997).
The ultimate results of this pressure have been found to one of the
important factors influencing job stress in their work (Cahn et al., 2000).
A study in UK indicated that the majority of the workers were unhappy
with the current culture where they were required to work extended
hours and cope with large workloads while simultaneously meeting
production targets and deadlines (Townley, 2000).
Role ambiguity is another aspect that affects job stress in the
workplace. According to Beehr et al. (1976), Cordes & Dougherty
(1993), Cooper (1991), Dyer & Quine (1998) and Ursprung (1986) role
ambiguity exists when an individual lacks information about the
requirements of his or her role, how those role requirements are to be
met, and the evaluative procedures available to ensure that the role is
being performed successfully. Jackson & Schuler (1985) and Muchinsky
(1997) studies found role ambiguity to lead to such negative outcomes
60
as reduces confidence, a sense of hopelessness, anxiety, and
depression. Several studies have tried to determine the link between
stress and job satisfaction. Job satisfaction and job stress are the two
hot focuses in human resource management researches. According to
Stamps & Piedmonte (1986) job satisfaction has been found significant
relationship with job stress. One study of general practitioners in
England identified four job stressors that were predictive of job
dissatisfaction (Cooper, et al., 1989). In other study, Vinokur-Kaplan
(1991) stated that organization factors such as workload and working
condition were negatively related with job satisfaction. Fletcher & Payne
(1980) identified that a lack of satisfaction can be a source of stress,
while high satisfaction can alleviate the effects of stress. This study
reveals that, both of job stress and job satisfaction were found to be
interrelated.
The study of Landsbergis (1988) and Terry et al. (1993) showed
that high levels of work stress are associated with low levels of job
satisfaction. Moreover, Cummins (1990) have emphasized that job
stressors are predictive of job dissatisfaction and greater propensity to
leave the organization. Sheena et al. (2005) studied in UK found that
there are some occupations that are reporting worse than average
scores on each of the factors such as physical health, psychological
well-being, and job satisfaction. The relationship between variables can
be very important to academician. If a definite link exists between two
variables, it could be possible for a academician to provide intervention
in order to increase the level of one of the variables in hope that the
intervention will also improve the other variable as well (Koslowsky, et
al., 1995). In this study, we would like to examine what extent of
interrelation between the job stress and job satisfaction among
university academic staff setting in Malaysia.
61
In order to cope with increased competitive pressure globalization
and demand for efficiency, many organizations have come to rely on the
strategy of restructuring and downsizing. The effectiveness of this
strategy, however, depends, in part, on its impact on survivors’ work
attitudes and behaviors. Unfortunately, much of the evidence from
research on survivors’ work-related attitudes and behaviors subsequent
to restructuring and downsizing have documented evidence of feelings
of job insecurity, intent to quit, decline in organizational commitment,
loyalty and trust, among others (Brockner, 1998; Brockner, Grover,
Reed, DeWitt and O’Malley, 1987; Cascio, 1993; Kets de Varies and
Balazs, 1997; Armstrong-Stassen, 1998; Ryan and Macky, 1998;
Wager, 2001). Of these, intent to quit poses the most serious threat to
the effectiveness of the restructuring and downsizing strategy because
if unchecked, with appropriate organizational interventions, it leads to
voluntary turnover of high performing survivors on whose long-term
commitment, motivation and loyalty, the success of restructuring and
downsizing depends (Mueller et al. 1984; Mone, 1994; Mishra, Spreitzer
and Mishra, 1998). What is more, intent to quit is considered to be one
of the most reliable predictors of voluntary turnover (Price and Mueller,
1995; Hom and Griffeth, 1995; Muller et al., 1994). This underscores the
need for a conscious and structured organizational approach to the
management of survivors’ adverse reactions (intent to quit and
subsequent voluntary turnover) to restructuring and downsizing.
Using Larzarus and Folkman’s (1984) theory of stress, Mishra
and Spreitzer (1998) offer a theoretical model that explains survivors’
responses to downsizing. It classifies responses as either constructive
or destructive and explains how they are influenced by trust, sense of
justices, empowerment and job redesign. Empowerment and work
redesign, they argue, influence secondary appraisal and facilitate
constructive active responses because they enhance survivors’
62
assessments of their capacity to effectively respond to the challenges
that restructuring and downsizing represent. Consequently, they
respond by obeying orders, waiting willingly through good and bad
times for conditions to improve in the organization, accepting the goals
and objectives assigned to them by management and by actively finding
ways to help the organization fulfill the objectives of the downsizing.
If this argument holds true, employee empowerment and job
redesign would be related to affective organizational commitment,
defined as an employee’s desire to remain attached to an organization
and work to help accomplish its goal (Porter et al., 1979; Mowday,
Steers and Porter, 1979,). It also suggests that empowerment and job
redesign can be organizational interventions that could mitigate “intent
to quit” that is induced by the uncertainties that restructuring and
downsizing create. This, of course, is based on the premise that
constructive responses exhibited by survivors are manifestations of their
desire to remain attached and work to help accomplish the goals of the
organization. Conversely, intent to quit and the consequent voluntary
turnover are manifestations of a decline of survivors’ affective
organizational commitment. In other words, affective commitment is a
predictor of intent to quit and subsequent voluntary turnover.
A number of studies on organizational and personal effects of
restructuring and downsizing have reported mixed findings. While some
reported cost savings and improved efficiency, others have reported
high organizational costs in terms of lower levels of employees= morale,
trust (Henkoff, 1994; Cascio, 1993; Ket de Vries & Balazs, 1997;
Brockner, Davy & Carter, 1985) and feelings of job insecurity, higher
levels of stress, loss of productive employees and feelings of
uncertainties among survivors.
Just as the results are mixed for organizations, survivors’
responses to restructuring and downsizing are mixed as well. In one
63
study of survivors’ reaction to layoffs, Brockner, Grover, Reed, DeWitt
and O’Malley (1987) found that it took the form of reduced work
performance and organizational commitment. In another, Brockner,
Grover, Reed, and DeWitt (1992) found that survivors who perceived
downsizing as a threat but who had high economic need to work,
responded by increasing their work efforts. Therefore, while some see it
as a threat to job security, breach of psychological contract and trust,
others see it as an opportunity to advance and assume greater
responsibility by assuming the tasks and responsibilities of the victims.
Mishra and Spreitzer (1998) are of the view point that constructive
responses range from obliging (calm, relief, committed, loyal, following
order, routine behavior) to hopeful responses (hope, excitement,
optimism, problem solving, and taking initiative).
The post restructuring and downsizing work environment is
characterized by uncertainty, work overload, role overload and stress
level as survivors struggle to assume the work duties and
responsibilities of those laid off. Emotional reactions to all of these
include, fear, anxiety, feelings of job insecurity, anger, bitter feeling
toward the organization for not holding its end of the psychological
contract, and sense of loss of friendly coworkers.
A number of studies have found associations between these
prevailing conditions and emotional reactions and intent to quit, and
between intent to quit and voluntary turnover. Hom and Griffeth (1995)
found positive relationship between role overload and voluntary
turnover. Similarly, Mueller, (1994) found association between work
overload and voluntary turnover. To some survivors, the job insecurity
associated with restructuring and downsizing environment is viewed as
an opportunity to pursue career opportunity elsewhere (Bennet et al.,
1995). It should be noted, however, that availability of alternative
opportunities may mitigate voluntary turnover. Unfavorable economic
64
conditions may prevent survivals from translating intent to quit into
actual voluntary turnover. In such situation, survivors’ decision to stay in
their current employment may results from continuance commitment. A
review of organizational commitment research literature by Meyer and
Allen (1991), and corroborated by Dunham, Gruba and Castaneda
(1994), identified three types of organizational commitment: affective,
continuance and normative.
Affective commitment is defined as employee emotional
attachment to, identification with, and involvement in the organization
and its goals. It results from and is induced by an individual and
organizational value congruency. As a result, it becomes almost natural
for the individual to become emotionally attached to and enjoy
continuing membership in the organization (March & Simon, 1958; Hall
et. al., 1970; O'Reily & Chatman, 1986, Meyer & Allen, 1984). Steers
(1977), and Mottaz, (1988), identified factors which help create
intrinsically rewarding situations for employees to be antecedents of
affective commitment. These factors include such job characteristics as
task significance, autonomy, identity, skills variety and feedback
concerning employee job performance, perceived organizational
support or dependence (the feeling that the organization considers what
is in the best interest of employees when making decisions that affect
employment conditions and work environment), and the degree that
employees are involved in the goal-setting and decision-making
processes.
Over the years, two basic approaches have been used to study
organizational commitment: commitment-related attitudes and
commitment-related behaviors. Each approach offers a slightly different
definition. The commitment-related attitude approach defines
organizational commitment as a partisan, affective attachment to the
goals and values, and to the organization for its own sake, apart from its
65
purely instrumental worth (Buchanan, 1974). Porter, Crampton and
Smith (1976) define it as the willingness of an employee to exert a high
level of effort on behalf of the organization, a strong desire on behalf of
the organization, and an acceptance of its major goals and values.
According to Mowday, Steers and Porter (1979), attitudinal commitment
represents a state in which an individual identifies with a particular
organization and its goals and wishes to maintain membership in order
to facilitate these goals.
Many definitions exist in the literature for institutional
commitment. For the purpose of the study, the definition of
organizational commitment is derived from Mowday, Porter and Steers
(1982). Organizational commitment is defined in terms of the relative
intensity of a teacher’s involvement in, and identification with, a specific
institution, Mathieu and Zajac (1990) state that this definition reflects
multiple dimensions since it includes the concept of identification and
incorporates the desire to remain with the institution and work toward
institutional goals.
Three factors of attitudes and behaviours lend salience to the
characterization of institutional commitment. They are (1) acceptance of
and belief in the values and goals of the institutions; (2) desire to
maintain institutional membership; and (3) a willingness to contribute to
the institution. This definition of institutional commitment denotes an
active relationship exchange between the teacher and the institution
and involves attitudes and behaviours as manifestations of the actual
concept of institutional commitment. Observed behaviours of the
committed teacher will be congruent with the definition constitutes
(Mowday, Porter & Stress, 1982).
O’Reilly and Chatman (1986) define institutional commitment as a
psychological attachment to the institution predicted by three
66
independent constructs, those of compliance, identification and
internalization. Compliance is defined as involvement for the extrinsic
rewards. Identification is involvement with the institution because of the
desire for affiliation and is an important mechanism in the developing
process of psychological attachment (Bowlby, 1982). Internalization is
involvement based on the individual’s acceptance of the institution’s
values. The first definitional component of the Mowday, Porter and
Steers (1982) institutional commitment model, acceptance and belief in
the values and goals of an institution is based on psychological
attachment (O’Reilly & Chatman, 1986).
Mowday, Porter and Steers (1982) are of the view that
institutional commitment is a global construct revealing the affective
responses of the teacher to the whole of the institution. The
development of commitment to the institution begins at the time of
employment, continues over a period of time and involves interplay of
attitudes and behaviours. Porter, Crampon and Steer (1986) have
opined that the level of commitment reported by Teachers on the first
day of employment predict turnover up to several months on the job.
Alternatively, Hunt and Morgan (1994) advocated the multiple
commitment view of institutional commitment. They report institutional
commitment to be defined as multiple commitments to various groups
comprising the institution, such as commitment to the workgroup, the
supervisor and to top management. Their research supports a
reconceptualization of the global institutional commitment model as a
“key mediating construct” with compliance, internalization identification
as the bases of commitment. Constituency-specific commitments are
factors that lead to, and result in, the concept of global institutional
commitment. On the consequences and outcomes of global institutional
commitment, reduced voluntary turnover may be the most predictable of
the behavioural model Mitchell, 1991; Lee, Ashford, Walsh and Mowday
67
(1982). A meta-analysis outcomes (Mowday, Porter and Steers, 1982;
Mathieu and Zajac, 1990; Lee & conducted by Mathieu and Zajac
(1990) reveals high correlations between institutional commitment and
behavioural intentions. Mathieu and Zajac conclude that institutional
commitment may represent a “summary index” of the teacher’s work
related experience and that institutional commitment may influence the
behavioural intentions in a direct way.
The institutional commitment meta-analysis conducted by
Mathieu and Zajac (1990) also reveals that among the focus of
commitment, the job involvement and institutional commitment
relationship is the largest observed. The two variables are considered to
influence some work related behaviours independently. Job involvement
is defined as a belief descriptive of and teacher’s relationship with the
present job. This is not to be confused with the term work involvement,
which may be defined as a normative and a function of historical cultural
conditioning and socialization whereas, job involvement is a function of
the satisfaction of eminent personal needs (Kanungo, 1982). Kanungo
(1982) suggests a reformulation of the job involvement construct to be
viewed as a form of psychological identification enhanced by a cognitive
or belief state. The teacher’s identification process depends on the
teacher’s saliency of both intrinsic to satisfy the teacher’s perceptions
about the job’s potentialities to satisfy the teacher’s needs, a
psychological contract relative to job involvement. According to Blau
and Boal (1987), job involvement is a better predictor of voluntary
turnover than absenteeism. Blau and Boal (1987) suggested that
institutional commitment and job involvement serve as complements
relative to prediction of the voluntary, turnover process. They also report
a significant interactive relationship between the two variables (Blau and
Boal, 1989).O’Reilly and Chatman (1986) are of the view that job
involvement is a consequent outcome of psychological commitment to
68
an institution. Job involvement is included in a category of dependent
variables that is relevant to institutional commitment. There are certain
types of positive, involvement, which contribute to the definition of job
involvement. They are conformity, flexibility, motivation and an
acceptance of institutional policies demonstrated through obedience in
teacher institutional relationship.
Job satisfaction is a highly researched work and attitude is
commonly defined as “a pleasurable or positive emotional state
resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job experiences” (Locke,
1976). Job satisfaction is associated with various organizational and
individual outcomes (Judge, Parker, Colbert, Heller, & Ilies, 2001). For
example, Violanti and Aron (1994) found that high levels of job
satisfaction were associated with improved psychological well-being, in
their research with police officers. The relationship between low levels
of job satisfaction and increased turnover behaviours is consistently
produced (O’Leary-Kelly & Griffith, 1995). However, the associations
between job satisfaction and actual turnover behavior are generally only
moderate, and have also produced some mixed findings. The instability
of job satisfaction over time probably accounts for these moderate
predictions of turnover (O’Driscoll & Brough, 2003; Paton, Jackson, &
Johnston, 2003), although this point has rarely been formally tested.
Theories of Motivation:
Entire theories of motivation can be broadly classified into three
namely: 1. Content or need theories which basically look at the motives
or needs in individuals that influence behavior. Maslow, Alderfer, Murry,
Mc Clelland and White are some personalities who have made
significance contributions to his approach. Cognitive or process theories
which look in the dynamic process of how people assess work
situations and make decisions cognitively as to whether and what extent
they should and would engage in work behavior in this category of
69
motivational theories Adam, Vroom, Porter, and Lawler have
contributed a lot. 3. Reinforcement theories which consider behavior as
the responses of individuals to the stimuli they are exposed to. The
theory suggests that by changing the cues or stimuli in people’s
environment, their behavior can be moulded, shaped, changed or
limited.
Content or Need Theory: Under this category of motivational
theories, following theories are considered:
Hierarchy of Needs Theories: Abraham Maslow postulated this
theory of motivation during the decades of the 1950s. He hypothesized
that within every individual there exists a hierarchy of five needs
such as-
1. Physiological Needs: Includes hunger, thrust, shelter, sex,
and bodily needs.
2. Safety Needs: Which covers security and protection from
physical and motivational harms.
3. Social Needs: Includes affection, a sense of belongingness,
acceptance, and friendship.
4. Esteem Needs: Contains internal factors such as self respect,
autonomy and achievements and external factors like status,
recognition and attention.
5. Self Actualization: The drive becomes what one is capable of
becoming includes growth, achieving ones potential and self
fulfillment.
Physiological and safety needs were described as lower order.
Social esteem and self actualization were categorized as higher order
needs. The differentiation between the two orders was made on the
premise that higher order needs are satisfied internally, whereas lower
order needs are predominantly satisfied externally by such things as
70
wages, union, contracts and tenure. This theory has received wide
recognition particularly among practicing managers. Unfortunately,
however, research does not generally validate the theory due to
following reasons:
a) Needs are arranged in a hierarchy fashion and the lower level
needs must be first satisfied before the higher level needs in the
pyramid will be activated. If we look into the evidences, the many
poets, artists, musicians and sculptures all over the world, who
have tried to self-, actualize themselves by their immortal work
without even having satisfied their lower level needs. Many of these
great personalities had lived their lives in subject poverty and non-
recognition during their life time obliviously their lower level
physiological, security, social and self esteem needs were never
met.
b) The operationalization of some of the concepts, which makes it
difficult for researcher to test the theory, e.g. how does one
measure self actualization.
Alderfer’s ‘ERG’ Theory:
Clayton Alderfer, reformulated Maslow’s theory of needs of
hierarchy. He modified and reduced Maslow’s five levels of needs to
three levels and labeled them as needs for Existence, Relatedness and
Growth. The name of ERG theory is derived from the first letter of each
of these three levels of needs. Alderfer’s existence needs comprise of
Maslow’s physiological needs as well as the needs for security and
safety. His relatedness needs refer to the need of people for affection,
love and friendship in their social environment and would thus include
Maslow’s social needs. Alderfer growth needs compasses the ideas of
Maslow as he had conceptualized self esteem and self actualization,
people tend to satisfy their needs to develop the growth on their job, the
basic difference between Maslow and Alderfer is that Alderfer posited a
71
“satisfaction – progression” akin t Maslow’s “Deprivation – Gratification”
as well as a frustration – regression process in his theory. That is
Alderfer agreed with Maslow that once one level of needs is satisfied
people will progress to the next level to satisfy the succeeding higher
level needs. For example, if relatedness needs are satisfied people will
move on to the growth needs level to have them satisfied. Unlike
Maslow however, Alderfer also postulated that if for some reason,
people continuously become frustrated in trying to satisfy their needs at
one level, their next lower level of needs will re-merge and they will
regress to the lower level to satisfy their more basic needs. For
instance, if relatedness are not satisfied and an individual continuously
experiences frustration in not being able to meet choose needs, his
existence needs will re-emerge and will regress his level and try to got
more of those needs satisfied i.e. he would feel the need to eat better
live better and satisfy more of the physiological needs. Secondly
Alderfer also suggest that more than one need may be activated at a
time. In other words, individuals may be working towards fulfilling both
their relatedness needs and growth needs or their existence need
simultaneously. Therefore, Alderfer’s theory is more flexible in
describing human behavior than Maslow’s theory.
Murray’s Manifest Needs Theory:
Henley Murray developed a list of twenty eight needs that human
beings have. Among these are the needs for achievement, affiliation,
dominance, aggression, dependence and nurturance. Murray proposed
that our needs are mostly acquired in life rather than inherited and
needs can be activated or made to manifest them by introducing
appropriate cues in the environment e.g. an employee’s needs for
achievement will manifest itself when the individual is exposed to a
challenging job. Since a challenging job requires the individual to
master all the creativity and abilities that are within the person has an
72
opportunity to tap into his/ her needs for achievement. It however, the
individual as continuously exposed to monotones job only this need is
never tapped and the individual becomes bored with the job. Thus,
given a conducive environment our talent needs can manifest them.
McClelland’s Research on Manifest Needs in Work Settling:
David Mc Clellend of Harvard University did extensive research
on the concept of need for achievement and need for power. Studying
the need for achievement of individual in different countries he
concluded that the level of a nation’s need for achievement is highly co-
related to the country’s economic development, i.e. nations high in need
for achievement are more prosperous than those low in need for
achievement. He also stressed the level of need for achievement can
be included and developed in individuals. In other words, the level of
need for achievements can be raised in individuals through training.
Ultimately he recommended theories of each three needs i.e. Needs for
Affiliation, Needs for Achievement and Needs for Power. While most of
us possess all three needs, usually one or the other of the three
dominant than the other. Al three needs can be usefully tapped in
organization setting to achieve higher levels of performance.
Needs for Achievement:
Individuals high in need for achievement exhibit certain
characteristics and can easily be spotted in organization. High need for
achievement individuals like to work on job, which are fairly challenging.
They won’t be turned on by jobs, which have either low challenging or
too high level of challenge. Too little challenge will bore them since
there is no opportunity to satisfy their urge to achieve and too much
challenge would mean that the job is too difficult and hence will reduce
the fear of future in them. Since their need for achievement and
accomplishment are high, high needs for achievement individuals will
73
not try to work on jobs that are too challenging that successful task
accomplishment become doubtful. High need achievement individuals
hence seek jobs that are individuals hence seek jobs that are
moderately challenging. They also like to work ad autonomy to perform
their work. They also desire feedback on how well they are performing.
Thus, moderator challenging job responsibility, autonomy and feedback
motivate individuals high in need for achievement to engage in work
behavior and performance well on the job.
Need for Affiliation:
Individuals in high need for affiliation like to interact with
colleagues in the organization. They have a strong desire for approval
and reassurance from others and they are willing to confirm to the
norms of groups to which they belong. In effect they have needs to
develop affinity and warm relationship with the people in the work
system. They are usually gregarious by native and like to work with
others in a friendly atmosphere. Teamwork, cooperative efforts, joint
problem solving sessions and committed assignments are all well suited
for those high in need for affiliation to perform well. In Alderfer’s
framework, these individuals are in the relatedness needs level and in
Maslow’s frame work they are in the social needs level. People high in
needs for affiliation are said to perform in their job, which they are given
supportive feedback. A cooperative work norm where pressure for
increased output comes from firmness also increased output. Thus,
friendly managers and supervisors can influence individual high in need
for affiliation and motivate them to work.
Need for Power:
74
Mc Clelland has also done research on need for power. His latest
work discusses the two faces of power. Mc Clelland differentiates
between personal power and institutional or social power. Individuals
high in need for personal power like to inspire subordinates and expect
the latter to respect and obey them. Such behaviours of gratify their own
need for power in personal sense. Managers, who are high in
institutional power, however tend to exert authority and influence so as
to achieve the goals of the organization rather than to gain any personal
ego satisfaction. Mc Clelland describes the institutional power manager
as “Organizational minded and getting things done in the interest of
organization. That is the institutional power manager exercises the
power in the interests said to be very effective since they are willing to
somewhat sacrifice their own interests for the organization’s overall well
being. Mc Clelland feels that institutional or social power in good for the
organization and personal power is detrimental to the overall interests of
organization. Powers with high need for power would naturally be
turned on by holding positions of authority and influence in the
organization. They like to take charge and be in control of situations.
Placing such individuals in high level position will help them to gratify
their own needs as well as get many of the organizations policies and
orders followed and carried out by employees.
Robert White identified another need that can be effectively
challenged in the organizations. This is the need for affection. More
comprehensively developed the concept to use it in the organizational
settings. Need for affection is a concept, which describes our inborn
drive to explore and gain mastering over our own immediate
environment. Need for affection is manifested even babies who
constantly try to explore their small world. They reaches out for things
crawl and take their steps and feel happy with their explorations. Such
explorations of environment continue throughout human being
75
experience of both successful and unsuccessful experiences and gain
varying degree of mastery over the environment. The history of
successful experience over one life time, offers one sense of confidence
in his/her own competence. White considered this confidence as a
powerful motivator to interact more with the environment so as to
accumulate more business experiences and feel confident about our
competence. White called this confidence in one’s own competence a
‘sense of competence’. Jay Loresch and John Morse a Harvard
Business School used the concept of “sense of competence” to study
the motivation and performance accounted for high level of managerial
motivation and performance in several types of organizations. The
concept of sense competence is important because it can easily make
use of the need for affection that employees have or arouse this need in
the work setting, so that employee’s energies can be advantageously
tapped and their sense of competence enhanced. This in turn will
increase the level of motivation in employees. The need for affection in
individuals, a powerful motivator can be creatively challenged through
proper job assignments and allowing employees to gain mastery over
their environment. Given adequate encouragement and support,
employees will be motivated to engage in work behavior. The more they
interact with their work environment, the in turn, will motivate them to
even more actively engage in their work. Hence motivation and a sense
of competence will mutually influence each other and offer employees
intra-psychic or intrinsic reward.
Designing Motivating Jobs:
Individuals in high need for affiliation like to interact with
colleagues in the employees have needs, which they seek to satisfy.
Obviously some of these needs should be satisfied of the job. Since the
time a person puts into his job represents about thirty five per cent of
his/her working hours. There are ample opportunities for finding
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fulfillment and satisfaction from non-job-related activities. It can be
argued that if job are bore, and there are sufficient opportunities for
finding excitement of the job. On the other hand, it can also be argued
that intrinsically rewarding jobs – those that employees find interesting –
provide motivation in them and require substantially less reliance on
externally initiated motivators. The term job design refers to the way
tasks are combined from complete jobs. Some jobs are routine because
the tasks are standardized and repetitive, others are non-routine. Some
require a large number of varied and diverse skills, others re narrow in
scope. Some jobs constrain the employee by requiring him/her to follow
very precise. Procedures, others allow employees substantial freedom
in how they do their work. Some jobs are most effectively accomplished
by groups of employees working as a team member, others jobs are
best done by individuals essentially acting independently. The point is
that jobs differ in the way tasks are combined and these different
combinations create a variety of job designs.
There are many guidelines available to help redesigning or
setting of job. The most complete frame work available for analyzing a
job design is the “Job Characteristics Mode” (JMC). According to this
model, there are key job characteristics, their inter relationship and their
predicted impact on employee productivity. Motivation and satisfaction,
which is described below:
(a) Skill Variety: The degree to which a job requires a variety of
different activities so the worker can use a number of different
skills and talents.
(b) Tasks Identify: The degree to which the job requires competition
of a whole and identifiable piece of work.
(c) Task Significance: The degree to which the job has a
substantial impact on the lines or work of the people.
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(d) Autonomy: The degree to which the job provides substantial
freedom, independence and direction to the individuals in
scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be
used in carrying it out.
(e) Feedback: The degree to which carrying out the work activities
required by the job results in the individuals obtaining direct and
clear information about the effectiveness of his/her performance.
Theory of X & Y:
Douglous Mc Gregor proposed two distinct views of human
beings i.e. on basically negative labeled. Theory ‘X’ and other basically
positive labeled. Theory ‘Y’ – after viewing the way managers dealt with
employees. McGregor in concluded that a manager’s view of the nature
of human being is based on a certain grouping of assumptions and that
he/she tends to mold his/her behavior towards subordinates.
Under the theory ‘X’ from assumptions are held by the managers:
(a) Employees inherently dislike work and whenever possible, will
attempt to avoid it.
(b) Since employees dislike work, they must be coerced, controlled or
threatened with punishment to achieve described goals.
(c) Employees will shirk responsibilities and seek formal direction
whenever possible.
(d) Most workers place security above all other factors associated with
work and will display little ambition.
In contrast to these negative views towards the nature of human
being Mc Gregor listed four other assumptions that he called theory ‘Y’.
(a) Employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play.
(b) A person will exercise self-discretion and self control if he is
committed to the objectives.
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(c) The average person can learn to accept, even seek responsibility.
(d) Creativity that is the ability dispensed throughout the population
and not necessary the side province of those in management
functions.
Unfortunately, there is no evidence to confirm that either set of
assumption is valid or the acceptance of theory ‘Y’ assumptions and
altering one’s actions accordingly will lead to more motivated worker.
Herzberg’s Dual Factor Theory:
Fredric Herzberg and his associates were the first to identify that
there are two sets of factor in the work setting that affect employees’ job
attitudes. Herzberg stated that certain aspects of the work itself or
specific rewards derived from one’s work. Such as sense of
achievement, recognition, growth and advancement stimulate and
motivate people to work. Other factors in the work setting such as
conditions in the work environment, e.g. supervision and company
policy do not directly motivate or satisfy employees, out the absence of
these factors would cause dissatisfaction to the employees. He called
the first set of factors “Motivator” or ‘Satisfiers” and the second set of
factor ‘Hygiene’ Factor or ‘Satisfiers’. The point made by Herzberg is
that satisfaction and dissatisfaction are different factors (hence, the
name, dual factor theory) in other words, the opposite of dissatisfaction
is not satisfaction. To put it yet differently, a person can be dissatisfied
with working conditions and at the same time, be satisfied with the work.
It is the job contains work (work itself) that satisfies and motivates
people and it is the job context (work environment) that makes people
dissatisfied. Herzberg’s dual factor theory is also known as the
“Motivation Hygiene Theory”. Herzberg used a “critical incidents”
technique in his research, i.e., he asked respondents to identify specific
incidents, events, or situations when
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1. They felt most responses collected by him from over 1600 workers
in various types of jobs in 12 different students, and he developed
his dual factor theory. The motivators and satisfiers that he
identified are listed below:
Herzberg’s Dual Factors or Motivation – Hygiene TheoryHygiene factors relating to the work context (Dissatisfaction)
Motivators relating to the work content (Satisfaction)
Company policy and administration Achievement
Supervision Recognition
Relations with supervisors Work itself
Relation with co-workers Responsibility
Relations with subordinates Advancement
Work conditions, status, security and play Growth
However, Herzberg’s theory has also been criticized for thing
critical incidents techniques. It has been argued that this technique has
biased his results since people usually have a tendency to identify
dissatisfying events (hygiene factors) are being experienced due to
factors in the environment, which are beyond their control such as
company policy etc. people, however, associate – satisfying events
(motivation) as being experienced due to their own efforts and
interaction with the work. Criticism also emanated from subsequent
research, some of which indicate that the same factors that cause job
satisfaction to some cause dissatisfaction to others. It has also been
argued that a given factor can cause both satisfaction and
dissatisfaction to the same group of co-workers. Herzberg has been
able to replicate his original findings. His theory of motivation has
contributed a lot in sensitizing manager to the fact that merely treating
the employees well through good company policies and the like is not
sufficient to get them motivated. Herzberg can be said to be the father
of designing theory, which has been subsequently developed, more
completely by Hackman and his associates.
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Cognitive or Process Theories of Motivation:
Cognitive models of motivation are based on the nation that
individuals make conscious decisions about their job behavior. Thus,
understanding the process by which individuals make decisions about
how much effort they will put on the job will help managers/
administrators to motivate people better. There are several approaches
for understand the cognitive process discussed below:
Equity Theory:
Equity theory was first advanced by Stasy Adams. The notion of
equity stipulate that justice and fairness should prevail (such as in the
reward system). The process of deciding whether there is equity,
involves social comparisons by organizational members. For instance,
an individual looks at the amount of work that he/she puts in and how
the reward were dispensed for that effort, and compares it with the
efforts and rewards of another person in a similar position. If there is a
perceived equity or fairness, all is well. However, if inequity is
perceived, the person feels unhappy, distressed and restless, since
what he/she thinks is equitable and what has actually happened are
variance. This cognitive dissonance or restlessness and agitation in the
individuals mind will propel the person to take some type of action.
Since felt inequity motivates or moves people to take action. It is a
motivator. Hence, motivation or work behavior could very well be a
function of felt inequity. According to Adams, “Inequity is an injustice
perceived by a person when he/she compares the ratio of his/her
outcomes (rewards) to his/her inputs (efforts) with the ratio of another
comparable person’s outcomes to inputs and finds that they are not
equal”. Inequity exists under two conclusions: (1) when the person feels
that in comparison, he/she suffers a negative inequity, that is he/she
has been rewarded less or his/her efforts thus another hand. (2) when
he experiences a positive inequity that is in competency he/she finds
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himself/herself rewarded more than another for a similar degree of
efforts. Both kinds of inequities provide cognitive dissonance or internal
tensions and propel to action in order to reduce, the dissonance. In
essence Equity theory pre supposes that in putting forth future efforts
an individual asks question “Am I being rewarded fairly for my effort,
especially when I compare myself with another in similar position in the
organization. At least to different consequences are possible as a result
of felt inequity. Adams suggests that people tend to resolve inequity
through the following ways:
a) The person can after inputs (effort) i.e. people who feel. They are
under paid for their efforts may tend to reduce their efforts and who
feel they are overpaid might went to increase their efforts.
b) The person can try to alter outcomes or rewards and union’s effort
to increase wages when the company’s wage level falls short of
industry levels is a cure in point.
c) The person can cognitively distort inputs or outcomes.
d) The person might quit the job.
e) The person could try to influence the other individual to reduce
inputs.
f) The person might change the level of comparison.
Vroom’s Expectancy Theory:
Victor Vroom made an important contribution to our
understanding of motivation and decision process what people use to
determine how much effort they will expend on their jobs. The level of
effort that individuals will extents is based on their perceptions of certain
factors in the work environment and their expectation regarding their
effort resulting in worthwhile rewards Vroom called it the expectancy
theory. There are four important concepts which draw special attention
listed below:
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a) Expectancy: Before an individual decides to put effort into the
performance of task, he/she looks at the various alternatives which
are available to him/her. Of course, everyone has to perform the so
as to stay in the organization, but the level of excellence at which
one would perform the task is one’s own decision e.g. The
individual has at least three alternatives before him/her to do an
excellent job to do an acceptable job or to do a really poor job.
Doing a poor job is likely to cost him his position in the organization
and hence the individual may want to choose between the first two
alternatives. He might decide to put forth his best effort and
perform an excellent job or he might decide to put forth a moderate
level of effort and do an acceptable job. The mere fact that he
decides to put in supervisor effort or a moderate level of effort does
not necessarily mean that the final output is going to be excellent or
at the acceptable level as anticipated. For instance even after
putting in supervisor effort the individual may not be able to perform
an excellent job and it might end up being only an acceptable level
of performance. Similarly, if he/she puts moderate effort, the final
performance contingencies, the individuals will attach some kind of
probability, which would range from zero to one e.g. the individuals
might attach a probability of (0.7) that he/she would do an excellent
job if he/she puts in supervisor effort and probability of (0.3) that it
could end up to be only an acceptable job even when he/she puts
in superior performance. Likewise he/she might attach the
probabilities of (0.6) and (0.4) say for acceptable and low quality
performance, if he/she expands moderate effort on the job based
on any given effort level denotes expectancy. Expectancy is thus
the perceived probability assigned to a given level of effort leading
to a given level of performance.
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b) Instrumentality: Refers to the outcome for the individual for each
level of job performance e.g. if through high level effort a high level
of performance is indeed achieved, what will be the consequent
outcomes Instrumentalities) of it? There could be a big bonus and
appreciation from the Boss and there will also be some physical
and mental stream for the job performance. The first two are
desirable but strain is not really wanted. Supposing even with the
high level of effort put in, only an acceptable level of performance is
achieved, the instrumentalities in that case may be a small amount
of bonus and probably a ‘sermon’ from the boss instead of
recognition but the physical and mental strain will be just the same.
Similarly, the instrumentalities for putting in moderate efforts and
performing either an acceptable job or a poor job can be
determined. Thus, instrumentality refers to the probability as
attached by the individual previously assigned probabilities to
various levels of efforts leading to different levels of perception –
Leading different levels of performance (expectancy).
c) Valance: Means attraction or repulsion of an outcome to the
individual. Each of the outcome or instrumentalities will have a
certain degree of attraction or repulsion for the individual receiving
it e.g. under the instrumentality that, the individual will like the
bonus and the praise from the boss but will try to minimize the
physical and mental stress. In other words, the first two are
attractive outcomes. Thus, a series of values can assigned to each
performance leading to instrumentalities for each of the effort
alternatives available. The probabilities assigned to each possible
performance attainment, the probabilities assigned to each
performance. Leading to instrumentalities and the valance
assigned to each effort alternative available. Whichever alternative
offers the highest sum will be the alternative chosen by the
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individuals per the expectancy model. Probabilities are assigned
cognitively by the individuals for the effort leading to performance
and performance leading to outcomes, and he/she will lower
his/her effort in addition, before people put forth effort, they will also
try to assess the probability of a certain level of effort leading to
desired level of performance and the probability of that
performance leading to certain kind of rewards. Based on the
valance of the reward and the effort reward. Probability, people
than decide to put in a certain level of work effort. The effort put in
will lead to the expected level of performance – only if the individual
has the requisite abilities and traits to perform the job. Ability
includes job knowledge, skill and intellectual capacity to perform
the job.
Traits such as endurance perseverance and goal directedness
are also important for many jobs. If these are absent, the effort put in
will not lead to the desired level of performance. This ability and traits
will moderate the effort – performance relationship. In other words, only
those who have the requisite abilities and traits will perform the job well
then they put forth the effort, the other will not. In addition, the individual
performing the job should also have accurate role perception. Role
perception refers to the way in which people define their jobs. Thus,
people may perceive their roles differently. The accuracy of role
perception is another variable that moderates the effort performance
relationship i.e. only those who perceive their role as it is defined by the
organization will be able to perform well when they put forth the
requisite effort e.g. staff nurse who has recently been promoted as
nursing supervisor or shift duty in-charge will not be to effectively get
the job done from other nursing staff if she/he will clings on to her/his
former role as a staff nurse working ward on the patient herself/himself.
Her/his role after promotion is to supervise other staff nurse and get the
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job done from them so that the quality and quantity of nursing core
patient in her/his unit/ward goes up. However, if she/he still extends all
her/his effort in doing the job herself/himself she/he is going to be an
ineffective nursing supervisor/shift duty in-charge will be poor despite all
efforts she/he puts in. Thus, both abilities and traits and accurate role
perception moderates the relationship between effort and performance.
Performance leads to certain outcomes in the shape of intrinsic
and extrinsic rewards. Intrinsic rewards are those feeling of joy, self
esteem and sense of competence and individuals feel when they do a
good job. Extrinsic rewards provide satisfaction to the individuals.
However, the rewards – satisfaction relationship is moderated by
perceived equitability of reward i.e. satisfaction will be experienced only
when the person feels fairly and justify rewarded for her/his efforts, not
otherwise.
Porter and Lawler’s model is of great significance to managers/
administrators since it sensitizes them to focus attention on following to
keep their subordinates motivated.
(a) Put the right person on the right job (nation abilities and traits of
individuals to the requirement of the job).
(b) Carefully explain to employees that their role is, and make sure
they understand it.
(c) Prescribe in concrete terms the actual performance levels expected
of the individuals and
(d) Make sure that the employee values that rewards dispensed i.e.
find output what rewards are attractive to the employee and see if
such rewards can be given to them.
(e) If high level of motivation are to be induced, managers/
administrators should ensure that employee perceive a direct link
between performance and desired rewards. If significant changes
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in performance levels desired, the rewards dispensed must also be
significant and valued enough by the employees to change their
effort levels.
Goal Setting Theory:
Edwin Locke perceived behavior to be determined by cognitions –
values and intentions or goals e.g. if a person has a high work ethics
value, he or she is likely to set a high performance goal and work
rewards a high level of performance. Actual work behavior then
becomes a function of values and goal set by the individuals.
Managers/administrators can motivate employees by setting goals,
which are jointly decided by both. Latham and Yukl indicated that four
important requirements should be met in the task goal setting process, if
employees are to be motivated to perform on their jobs. They are goal
specification, goal difficulty, goal acceptance and feedback.
Recent development in this direction has provided SMART
approach. Let us discuss as what should be an effective goal.
(a) Specific Goal: In goal setting process emphasis should be on
clarity of goal, it should be very much focused.
(b) Measurable Goal: It should be assessable against any standard
so that the performance of the employee to be measured and it can
be used as a feed back for employee as how much more work is to
be done.
(c) Attainable Goal: Goal should neither be too high to achieve nor
too close to put any effort in achieving it. It should be set in such
way that employee has to put forth his/her moderate effort to
achieve it.
(d) Realistic Goal: Unrealistic goal can never be achieved and it will
create frustration and dissatisfaction in the employee.
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(e) Time Bound Goal: Goal must be achieved within a prescribed
time limit. This technique of motivation is also known as
Management by objectives, which is very commonly used in
corporate sector.
Reinforcement Theory:
Reinforcement theory suggests that it is possible to predict
employee’s behavior without trying to understand the internal thought
process of individuals. It believes that environmental consequences
mould the behavior of people, e.g. a ward attendant perform dusting in
the ward and medical director of the hospital comes on round and
appreciates his effort and give him Rs. 100/-. Next week then medical
director comes on visit and find him dusting the ward gives him Rs.
100/- again. Ward attendant likely to exhibit two kind of behavior i.e. he
may perform his duty more seriously on regular basis or he may follow
the visit schedule of medical director so that he will be given more
money and praise from medical director. Such behaviour is
automatically exhibited due to the environment stimuli. Reinforcement
theory describes that human behavior is a function of individual’s
responses to environmental stimuli. This theory was first described by
Eward Thorndike when he explained the “Law of Effect” as follows
“Behaviours that result in pleasing outcomes are likely to be repeated
and behaviours which result in unpleasant outcomes are likely be
repeated”. Thorndike Law of effect has implications for the behavior of
employees at the work place. Behaviours that are reinforced by
administrators or managers will tend to be repeated and those that are
not, are likely to be substantially reduced or totally eliminated. Thus,
reinforcement theory can be applied in the work setting as managers/
administrators learn how to use ‘behaviour modification’ through
reinforcement.
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B.F. Skinner, the well known Psychologist used the term “operant
conditioning” to describe the process of controlling behavior by
manipulating its consequences. Operant conditioning is actually
“Lelarning through Reinforcement”. The term operant conditioning was
used with respect to shaping the behavior of animals. Skinner, for
instance, used operant conditioning when he taught pigeons to play
“ping pong” by rewarding them with food whenever they exhibited
behaviours that were appropriate to game. When operant conditioning
techniques are used to control the behavior of human being, the term
bechaviour modification is used.
Reinforcement Strategies:
There are four basic strategies of reinforcement used in
Organizational Behaviour Modification. They are positive reinforcement,
negative reinforcement, punishment and extinction. In addition, shaping
– a method of introducing new described behaviours in
employees is also a technique which uses reinforcement principles.
1. Positive Reinforcement: Positive reinforcement is used to
increase the frequency and strength if desired work behaviours by
making the positive reinforcement (i.e. the consequence desired by
the employee) contingent on the occurrence of the desired
behavior in the employee e.g. head of department of any medical
department may express appreciation to an under training medical
student who has assessed the patient’s condition accurately.
Positive reinforcement involves rewarding a desired behavior with
some form of recognition and approval, which makes the
employees happy and encourages them repeat the same behavior.
2. Negative Reinforcement: Negative reinforcement increases the
frequency and strengths of desired behavior by making it
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contingent upon the avoidance of undesirable consequences for
the employees. For instance a house keeping staff has been
reprimanded by the supervisor for not moping the wards properly.
Here in this case, something that was unpleasantness in the future,
the person will try to exhibit the desired work behaviours. Thus,
negative reinforcement implies that the mere anticipation of
noxious stimuli from the environment by the employee will reinforce
the desired behaviours.
3. Punishment: Punishment is used to decrease the frequency or
weaken an undesired behavior by making it contingent on the
occurrence of an undesired consequence for the employee. For
instance, if an employee comes late to more than two times a
month, the manager might count each additional late attendance as
a day’s earned leave lost. The employee is thus punished which
serves a lesson for not coming late at least for the rest of the
month. Such punishment meted out would make employees think
before they repeat the mistakes. The difference between
punishment and negative reinforcement is that, in the former,
noxious consequence is applied to decrease the frequency or
strength of an undesired behavior, whereas in the latter, a noxious
consequences or strength of an undesired behavior is exhibited.
Punishment can have undesirable side effect if administered too
frequently or for a considerable length of time. Strong emotional
reactions such as anger, hatred, or fear may ensure, and may
result in aggressive behavior at the workplace. Assaulting an
officer, hitting the supervisor, engaging in acts of sabotage, and
such other dysfunctional and detrimental behaviors can result in
extreme cases.
4. Extinction: Extinction refers to the weakening and ultimate
elimination of an undesired behavior by making it contingent on the
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removal of desirable consequence for the employee. Extinction
involves three things (1) Identifying the behavior that needs to be
eliminated, (2) Identifying the reinforces which encourage the
behavior that is desired to be eliminated, (3) Stopping the
reinforces.
5. Shaping: Shaping is the creation of new target behavior, which is
desired, but is currently beyond the existing capabilities of
employees. This behavior is shaped by rein forcers successive
approximations of the final target behavior, i.e. by reinforcing small
incremental steps taken by an individual towards reaching the
desired goal e.g. a nursing superintendent who want her
supervisors supervise 12 nursing staff during their shift duties
without compromising with the quality of supervision, she can
reinforce her supervisors by giving them rewards, appreciation of
their work, giving them incentives when they supervise 8 nursing
staff in the respective shift and gradually they can be given the
target 10-12 and so on in the same way by nursing superintendent
for supervising nursing staff in the respective shifts. In this way
reinforcement will continue till desired goal is achieved.
Before discussing as which theory of motivation is best
applicable, one has to first recognize that the traditional concept of the
“economic man” who works for money alone, is no longer true for at
least today’s educated and professionally trained work force at global
level. Secondly one also needs to remember that without employee
cooperation and support no organization can be productive or function
effectively. Cooperation flows from motivated employees and motivation
stems from how the work system is arranged. If monetary rewards are
not always possible to dispense, there are several other supplementary
ways in which many of needs of people at the work place can be met.
Some of these may include involving staff in generating ideas to
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manage their own work, and offering risk support to innovative
employees who are eager to try new methods and systems. These are
relatively expensive ways in which people at work can be motivated.
However, there is nothing more immediate and powerful than
distinguishing and differentially rewarding superior performer in terms of
merit raises, promotions and career development opportunities.
Motivating employees at work requires reorientation in our way of
thinking and embedding new values and philosophy in the organization
system. We have to come to terms with fact that unless merit is
awarded, we will not be able to improve our productivity. Such a
reorientation will not only motivate the younger employees, but the
senior ones is well, since they will also once again begin to apply their
abilities. It is not merely enough to attract employees to organization,
but it is also important that managers/administrators should motivate
their employees to perform well and keep them interested in remaining
in the organization. That is managers/administrators must create
conditions at work place that will enable the worker to sustain their
interest in the organization and motivate them to contribute beyond they
routinely perform. Various cognitive, content and reinforcement theories
of motivation discussed so far, among which Porter and Lawler model
seems to be most comprehensive model. This far which takes several
moderating variables in the consideration for predicting the effort –
performance – satisfaction relation. However, it is impractical to say that
any of the techniques discussed above can be applied universally in
isolation irrespective of context. Beyond these models of motivational
techniques, effectiveness of techniques depends on the factors like
manager’s own abilities, skill and traits such as personality attitude,
leadership quality and relationship with subordinate and supervisors etc.
It is the time to think in new direction. Intellectual growth and
nourishment are as important as physical growth and nourishment for
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today’s educated employees. Hence it is time to work towards satisfying
the higher order meals of employees through job design, equitable
reward system; innovative work, group arrangements and creative ways
of managing a talented work force which can perform high order the
right conditions. In order to keep employees motivates and high
performer, it is essential for employer, administrator, manager and
supervisor to materialize following steps.
a) To know employees well and indentify their need pattern. This
would not be time consuming as every manager/administrator/
supervisor usually has direct responsibility for only a limited
number of people.
b) To set goals for employees and follows the principles of goal
setting.
c) To develop reliable performance appraisal systems and give
feedback to employees on their strength and weakness on periodic
basis.
d) To match the individuals to the job in terms of abilities and trait.
They should be exposed to the expectation of management as
what exactly is expected from employees in terms of performance
and final outcomes.
e) To give support to get the job done – training, help, understanding,
and creating a sense of competence among the employees.
f) To set equitable reward systems in the organization, employees
will not put forth their best effort if their effort is not rewarded
equitably. Employees must perceive reinforcement timely as
warranted by their behavior.
g) To be fair, focused and act as a role model for the employees so
that they have an idea of what their behavior should be like role,
modeling would be particularly effective motivational technique.
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Where capable managers/administrators have referent power and
are likely to be emulated by their employees. The new ethos will
have to be reflected in the organization’s culture system.
h) To success of private firms could be benchmarked by public
institutions to bring about similar changes to enhance
organizational productivity and better quality of work life for the
employees.
In addition to above explained theories and their effectiveness, it
is really untapped area till date in such a way that none of the free
group of techniques as described above have firm relationship with
factor associated with the motivate such as age, socio-economic status
and psychosocial status. Considering the labour laws prescribed by
ILO, Reinforcement theories are likely to be more effective in shaping
the individual during childhood, cognitive theories in motivating and
making more productive to highly professionally trained with advanced
age group of employees and content theories in motivating and getting
more work done from the low socio-economic, low psychosocial profile
employees irrespective of their age group. However, there is a need for
further in-depth studies in this area.
Motivation is gaining importance in administration and
development. The performance of government employees are affected
by motivation, morale, and communication. The changing paradigms of
development and governance are demanding committed bureaucrats
while the degrading values in administration call for attention. The
efforts for bringing transparency and accountability in administration are
leading towards good governance; however, administrative reforms are
essential for rejuvenating bureaucracy in India.
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