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SENSORYMECHANISMS AND
MOTOR SKILLS
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SENSATION
oconverting energy into a change in the membrane potof sensory receptors
oaction potentials
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SENSORY PATHWAYS
Functions Reception
Detection of stimuli
Sensory receptorsstimuli detector
Transmit signals to CNS
Transduction
conversion of stimulus energy into a change in the membrane potential of a sensory receptor Receptor potentialchange in membrane potential
Transmissionto action potential to CNS
Integrationof sensory information
Some are integrated through summation
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PERCEPTION
oBrains construction of the stimuli
oThe brain distinguishes the stimuli by the area of the brain that receivaction potentials
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AMPLIFICATION
Strengthening of stimulus energy
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SENSORY ADAPTATION
Decrease in responsiveness to continued stimulation
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SENSORY RECEPTORS
oMechanoreceptorssense physical deformation caused by stimuli(pressure, stretch, motion, sound)oDendrites of sensory neurons
oChemoreceptorstransmit information about total solute concentratsolutiono
When bound to a stimulus molecule, it becomes more or less permeable to solution
oElectromagnetic receptorsdetect electromagnetic energy (light, elemagnetism)oPhotoreceptorsdetect light
oInfrared receptorsdetect body heat
oMagnetic receptorsdetect magnetic fields
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SENSORY RECEPTORS
Thermoreceptors- respond to heat or cold Maintain body temperature
Pain receptorsnociceptors Naked dendrites in epidermis
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EX. HEARING ANDEQUILIBRIUM
Mechanoreceptors produce receptor potentials Detect moving particles and settling particles
Statocystssensory organ that maintain equilibrium Statolithsmechanoreceptors that detect movement of granules
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IN THE EAR
Three bones in the ear transmit vibrations to cochlea(can distinguish which then travels to vestibular canal Bending of hair
Volumeamplitude of sound wave
Pitchfrequency
Inner Eardetect equilibrium Utricle and sacculehave otoliths (granules that detect gravity and linear movemen
3 semicircular canalscontain fluid & detects angular acceleration
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IN THE EAR OF FISHES
Lateral line System Mechanoreceptors that sense water movement
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TASTE AND SMELL YUM
Terrestrial animals Gustation(taste)tastants
Olfocation(smell)odorants
Aquatic animalsno distinction
InsectsSensillahair on feet and mouth
HumansTaste Buds (sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami) through tongu Olfactory sensory cellsneurons that line nasal cavity
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VISION
Invertebrateslight-detecting organ Image-forming eyes
Compound eyesinsects and crustaceans (have ommatidiathousand light detectors)
Single-lens eyescamera-like (iris changes diameter of pupil)
Vertebrateseye detects color and light; brain assembles image
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VERTEBRATE EYE
Structure Sclerawhite outer layer (includes cornea)
Choroidpigmented layer
Irisregulates size of pupil
Retinacontains photoreceptors; where visual information processing begins
Lensfocuses light on the retina
Optic Diskblind spot in retina where optic nerve attaches
DivisionsAnterioraqueous humor (produced by ciliated body) ; watery
Posteriorvitreous humor; jelly-like
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HUMAN EYEPHOTORECEPTORS
Rodslight-sensitive No colors
Concentrated around retina
Rhodopsin- changes shape when absorbing light.
Conescolor sensitive
Not light Concentrated on fovea(center of visual field)
Contain retinal(light-absorbing molecule) bonded to opsin
Hyperpolarizes the cell
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PHOTOPSINS
3 pigments that detect light of different wave lengths
Red
Green
Blue
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MUSCULAR SYSTEM ALMOST
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SARCOMERE
ofunctional unit of muscle
oBordered by Z lines
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SLIDING FILAMENT MODEL
Filaments overlap between thin and thick filaments Interaction of myosin and actin (form a cross bridge)
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VERTEBRATE SKELETALMUSCLEoStriated Muscles
oConsists of long fibersoBundle of Myofibrils
oMyofilaments
oThin2 strands of actin, 1 strand of regulatory protein
oThickarrays of myosin molecules
oContracts only when stimulated by a motor neuronoTropomyosinprotein that blocks binding sites when muscle is at res
oMyosin-binding sitesexposed when Ca is released
oAcetylcholinecauses muscle to produce an action potential (depolait)
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Action
potentials
Interior of
muscle fiber
Transvers
e tubules
Sacroplasmic
reticulum
releases Ca
Binds to troponin
complex
Exposes myosin binding
sites
Cross bridge
cycle
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2 MECHANISMS THAT THENERVOUS SYSTEM PRODUCECONTRACTIONS1. Number of fibers that contract
2. Rate at which fibers are stimulated
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MOTOR NEURONS
Recruitmentthe more neurons = stronger contractions
Tetanusstate of smooth & sustained contraction
Twitchproduced by one motor neuron Slow-twitch fiberscontract slowly
Sustain longer contractions
All are oxidative Fast-twitch fiberscontract rapidly
Sustain short contractions
Glycolytic or oxidative
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TYPES OF SKELETALSYSTEM
Hydrostatic skeletons (lack hard parts) Consist of fluid held under pressure in a closed body compartment
In cnidarians, flatworms, annelids (use hydrostatic skeleton for peristalsis) and nem
Exoskeletonin arthropods (usually made of chitin)
Endoskeletonbones
In sponges, echinoderms and chordates Humans = 200 bones
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CHARACTERISTICS
Excitability
Contractility
Elasticity
Extensibility
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FUNCTION
Movement
Visceral Action
Positioning
Heat production
Electricity (in some fishes)
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ORGANIZATION
Sarcolema
Sarcoplasm
Nuclei
Striations
Epimysium
Perimysium
Endomysium
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TENDONS
Attachments of muscles to bones
Aponeuroses (flattened sheets)
Fascia (wrapper)
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SUBMICROSCOPICALLY
Mitochondria
Sarcoplasmic reticulum
Transverse tubules
Triad
Thick and thin filaments
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ORGANIZATION
Red vs White
Somatic vs Visceral
Voluntary vs Involuntary
Smooth vs skeletal vs cardiac
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HISTOLOGY
Skeletal
With striations andcrossbands
Voluntary
Multi-nucleate
Myofibrils
Innervated by a branch ofsingle nerve cell
Cardiac (Heart)
With striationsbvlhfkjhfjkhdfjkh
Involuntary
Mono-nucleate
Intercalated Discs
Branched
Smooth
No striationsbvlfgfghfkjhf
Involuntary
Mono-nuclea
Visceral Fun
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NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTIO
Connection between nervous system and muscle fiber
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MUSCLE METABOLISM
Energy fromATP
Creatine phosphate
Glycolysis
Aerobic cellular respiration
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MUSCLE FUNCTION
Importance of Length
Color Red: high myoglobin and vascularization
White: reverse of red
Tonic & Twitch Fibers
Force: Active and Elastic
SO vs FOG vs FG
Strength depends on cross sectional area
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MUSCLE FUNCTION
Graded force Excitation: all or none
Recruitment
Summation
Tetanus
Fiber Arrangement: pinnate or parallel
Bone Musce Lever Systems Where muscles are attached matters
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MUSCLE MECHANICS
Motor Patternany repetitive movement caused by nervous system
Synergists
Antagonists
Prime Movers
Originfixed pointInsertionarea of motion
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SOME ACTIONS
Flexion & Extensions
Adductors & Abductors
Levators and Depressors
Protactors and Retractors
Supinators and Pronators
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MUSCLE HOMOLOGIES
Determined by Similarity in location
In origin and insertion
In function
Shape
In nervous innervation
Origin/insertionAction
size
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BASIS OF NAMING MUSCLE
Direction of fibers
Location or position
Number of Divisions
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MUSCLES IN AQUATICVERTEBRATES
Lampreysno lateral septum Myomeres inserted into myosepta
No appendicular muscles
Gnathostome fish Strong axial musculature
Myomeres become angled and ov
Hypobranchial muscles open the j
Appendicular muscles with fins
Dorsal mass- extensors/adductors/levator
Ventral mass- flexors, abductors, depress
Constrictors continuous over the g
Adductor mandibulae closes the ja
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TETRAPODS
Limb muscles increase and axial musculature decreases
Myospeta disappear except in anurans
Epaxial muscles decrease in prominence Neck muscles form layers for flexibility
Intervertebrals
Longissimus Spinales
iliocostales
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TETRAPODS
Hypaxial muscles of trunk Subvertebral group-trunk flexion
Rectus abdominus group- supports the viscera
Lateral group- three sheet like layers; from which serratus, levascapulae and rhomboideus evolved External oblique
Internal oblique
Transversus abdominus
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BRANCHIAL MUSCLES
Involved in feeding and breathing
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HYPOBRANCHIAL MUSCLES
Head, neck, and tongue movement
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APPENDICULAR MUSCLES
Large for propulsion in tetrapods
In fish: for balance and stability
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LOCOMOTION
Primary SwimmersUndulatory
Secondary Swimmers - Paddles
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Terrestrial Cursorialfast running
Saltatorial - hop
Scansorialfor climbing
Fossorial - diggers
Flight Parachuting
Gliding
True flight