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Lecture # 197 November 2017
Second ExamMean = 57.4Range: 3286N = 67
F D’s C- C C+ B’s A- A 9 10 13 9 8 12 4 2
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Summary of Direct Pairwise Interactions Between Two Populations__________________________________________________________________________
Species Type of Interaction A B Nature of Interaction __________________________________________________________________________ Competition – – Each population inhibits the other Predation, parasitism, + – Population A, the predator, parasite, and Batesian mimicry or mimic, kills or exploits members of population B, the prey, host, or model
Mutualism, + + Interaction is favorable to both (can Müllerian mimicry be obligatory or facultative)
Commensalism + 0 Population A, the commensal, benefits
whereas B, the host, is not affected
Amensalism – 0 Population A is inhibited, but B is
unaffected
Neutralism 0 0 Neither party affects the other__________________________________________________________________
Lecture # 197 November 2017
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Indirect Interactions
Darwin — Lots of “Humblebees” around villages
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Indirect Interactions
Darwin — Lots of “Humblebees” around villages
bees —> clover
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Indirect Interactions
Darwin — Lots of “Humblebees” around villages
bees ——> clover
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Indirect Interactions
Darwin — Lots of “Humblebees” around villages
mice ——o bees ——> clover
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Indirect Interactions
Darwin — Lots of “Humblebees” around villages
cats —o mice ——o bees ——> clover
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Indirect Interactions
Darwin — Lots of “Humblebees” around villages
spinsters —> cats —o mice —o bees —> clover
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Indirect Interactions
Darwin — Lots of “Humblebees” around villages
spinsters —> cats —o mice —o bees —> clover —> beef
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Indirect Interactions
Darwin — Lots of “Humblebees” around villages
spinsters —> cats —o mice —o bees —> clover —> beef —> sailors
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Indirect Interactions
Darwin — Lots of “Humblebees” around villages
spinsters —> cats —o mice —o bees —> clover —> beef —> sailors —> naval prowess
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Indirect Interactions
Darwin — Lots of “Humblebees” around villages
spinsters —> cats —o mice —o bees —> clover —> beef —> sailors —> naval prowess
Path length of seven! Longer paths take longer (delay)Longer paths are also weaker, but there are more of them
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Indirect Interactions
Trophic “Cascades” Top-down, Bottom-up
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Competitive Mutualism
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Complex Population Interactions
Rob Colwell
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Mutualistic Interactions and Symbiotic RelationshipsMutualism (obligate and facultative) Termite endosymbiontsCommensalisms (Cattle Egrets)
Examples:Bullhorn Acacia ant colonies (Beltian bodies)Caterpillars “sing” to ants (protection)Ants tend aphids for their honeydew, termites cultivate fungiBacteria and fungi in roots provide nutrients (carbon reward)Bioluminescence (bacteria)Endozoic algae (Hydra), “kidnapped” chloroplastsEndosymbiosis (Margulis) mitochondria & chloroplastsBirds on water buffalo backs, picking crocodile teethFigs and fig wasps (pollinate, lay eggs, larvae develop)
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Brown Hydra Green Hydra
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Nudibranchs
Green sea slug
Hydra
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Intraspecific competition (between individuals within spp.)
Interspecific competition (between members of different spp.)
Exploitation competition (resource depression)
Interference competition (direct antagonistic encounters)
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Euglossine beesOrchid fragrances (epiphytes)Male bees use orchid chemicals as base for production of pheromones to attract female bees (travel up to 23 km) pollinate rare and diverse orchids, allowing sparsely
distributed plants to occur at astonishing low densities
Dan Janzen
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Heliconius tropical butterfliesget amino acids from pollen
Larry Gilbert
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Various Aspects of the Association of Cattle Egrets with Cattle________________________________________________________
Number ofNumber Percent Associated Egrets
Category of Cattle Cattle Expected Observed___________________________________________________________________
Grazing in sun 735 39.1 239 439Grazing in shade 55 2.9 18 21Standing in sun 146 7.8 48 46Standing in shade257 13.7 84 17Lying in sun 503 26.8 164 69Lying in shade 143 7.6 47 17Walking 39 2.1 13 3
______________________Total 1878 100.0 612 ________________________________________________________
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Various Aspects of the Association of Cattle Egrets with Cattle______________________________________________________________________
Number of Times Mean Count Was Higher
Number Than for Opposite Number of Per Minute Egret Associated Egrets
______________________________________________________________________Feedings, N = 84
Associated 2.34 58 69Nonassociated 1.71 26 31
Steps, N = 62Associated 20.1 7 11Nonassociated 32.1 55 89
Feeding/step, N = 59Associated 0.129 52 88Nonassociated 0.051 7 12
__________________________________________________________
Harold Heatwole
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Interspecific Competition leads to Niche Diversification
Two types of Interspecific Competition:
Exploitation competition is indirect, occurs when a resource is in short supply by resource depression
Interference competition is direct and occurs via antagonistic encounters such as interspecific territoriality or production of toxins
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Direct versus Indirect InteractionsExploitation vs. Interference competitionApparent CompetitionCompetitive MutualismFacilitationFood Chain MutualismTrophic Cascades (top-down, bottom up)Complex Population Interactions (Colwell’s Plant-Pollinator System)MutualismsEuglossine bees and orchidsHeliconius butterflies (larval nitrogen reserves)Cattle Egret CommensalismGause’s Paramecium competition lab experiments
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Competitive Exclusion
Georgii F. Gause
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Coexistence of two species of Paramecium
G. F. Gause
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Outcome of Competition Between Two Species of Flour Beetles_______________________________________________________________________________
Relative
Temp. Humidity Single Species (°C) (%) Climate Numbers Mixed Species (% wins)
confusum castaneum_______________________________________________________________________________ 34 70 Hot-Moist confusum = castaneum 0 10034 30 Hot-Dry confusum > castaneum 90 1029 70 Warm-Moist confusum < castaneum 14 8629 30 Warm-Dry confusum > castaneum 87 1324 70 Cold-Moist confusum <castaneum 71 2924 30 Cold-Dry confusum >castaneum 100 0
_______________________________________________________________________________
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Thomas Park
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Recall the Verhulst-Pearl Logistic Equation
dN/dt = rN [(K – N)/K] = rN {1– (N/K)}
dN/dt = rN – rN (N/K) = rN – {(rN2)/K}
dN/dt = 0 when [(K – N)/K] = 0
[(K – N)/K] = 0 when N = K
dN/dt = rN – (r/K)N2
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Inhibitory effect of each individualOn its own population growth is 1/KAssumes linear response to crowding,
instant response (no lag), r and K are fixed constants
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S - shaped sigmoidal population growth
Verhulst-Pearl LogisticK2 O
Optimal Yield
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Sigmoidal population growth
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Lotka-Volterra Competition Equations
competition coefficient
ij = per capita competitive effect
of one individual of species j on the rate of increase of species i
dN1 /dt = r1 N1 ({K1 – N1 – 12 N2 }/K1)
dN2 /dt = r2 N2 ({K2 – N2 – 21 N1 }/K2)
Solve for Isoclines by setting dN/dt‘s equal to zero:(K1 – N1 – 12 N2 )/K1 = 0 when N1 = K1 – 12 N2
(K2 – N2 – 21 N1 )/K2 = 0 when N2 = K2 – 21 N1
Alfred Lotka Vito Volterra
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Resultant Vectors
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Saddle Point
Point Attractor
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Lotka-Volterra Competition Equations for n species (i = 1, n):
dNi /dt = riNi ({Ki – Ni – ij Nj}/Ki)
Ni* = Ki – ij Nj where the summation is over j from 1 to n, excluding i
Diffuse Competition ij Nj
Robert H. MacArthur
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Lotka-Volterra Competition Equations
for 3 species:
dN1 /dt = r1 N1 ({K1 – N1 – 12 N2 – 13 N3 }/K1)
dN2 /dt = r2 N2 ({K2 – N2 – 21 N1 – 23 N3 }/K2)
dN3 /dt = r3 N3 ({K3 – N3 – 31 N1 – 32 N2 }/K3)
Isoclines: dN/dt = 0 {curly brackets, above}(K1 – N1 – 12 N2 – 13 N3 ) = 0 when N1 = K1 – 12 N2 – 13 N3
(K2 – N2 – 21 N1 – 23 N3 ) = 0 when N2 = K2 – 21 N1 – 23 N3
(K3 – N3 – 31 N1 – 32 N2 ) = 0 when N3 = K3 – 31 N1 – 32 N2
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Lotka-Volterra Competition Equations for n species
(i = 1, n):
dNi /dt = riNi ({Ki – Ni – ij Nj}/Ki)
Ni* = Ki – ij Nj
where the summation is over j from 1 to n, excluding i
Diffuse Competition ij Nj
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Alpha matrix of competition coefficients
11 12 13 . . . 1n
21 22 23 . . . 2n
31 32 33 . . . 3n
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
n1 n2 n3 . . . nn
Self damping elements on the diagonalii equal 1.
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Evidence of Competition in Natureoften circumstantial
1. Resource partitioning among closely-related sympatric congeneric species (food, place, and time niches) Complementarity of niche dimensions2. Character displacement, Hutchinsonian ratios3. Incomplete biotas: niche shifts4. Taxonomic composition of communities
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Major Foods (Percentages) of Eight Species of Cone Shells, Conus, on Subtidal Reefs in Hawaii_____________________________________________________________
Gastro- Entero- Tere- OtherSpecies pods pneusts Nereids Eunicea belids Polychaetes______________________________________________________________ flavidus 4 64 32lividus 61 12 14 13pennaceus 100abbreviatus 100ebraeus 15 82 3sponsalis 46 50 4rattus 23 77imperialis 27 73______________________________________________________________
Alan J. Kohn
Resource Matrix (m x n)
Radula
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MacArthur’s Warblers (Dendroica)
Robert H. MacArthur
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Time of Activity Seasonal changes in activity times
Ctenotus calurus Ctenophorus isolepis
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Complementarity of Niche Dimensions, page 276
Thomas W. Schoener
Anolis
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Prey size versus predator size
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Peter R. Grant
David Lack“Darwin’s Finches”
Galápagos Finches
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Character Displacement in Hydrobia mud snails in Denmark (Thomas Fenchel)
Snail shell length, mm
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Corixid Water BoatmanG. E. Hutchinson
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Hutchinsonian Ratios