Psychology TodaySchools & Careers
Psychology Today: A Thriving Science and ProfessionPsychology is the science that
studies behavior and the physiological and cognitive processes that underlie it, and it is the profession that applies the accumulated knowledge of this science to practical problems.
Research: Seven major areasApplied Psychology: Four major
areas
Fig 1.9 – Major research areas in contemporary psychology. Most research psychologists specialize in one of the seven broad areas described here. The figures in the pie chart reflect the percentage of academic and research psychologists belonging to APA who identify each area as their primary interest.
Fig 1.10 – Principal professional specialties in contemporary psychology. Most psychologies who deliver professional services to the public specialize in one of the four areas described here. The figures in the pie chart reflect the percentage of APA members delivering professional services who identify each area as their chief specialty. (Based on 2000 APA Directory Survey)
Schools of Psychology
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
View of Human Nature:Behavior is primarily shaped by
learning
Perspective
What Determines Behavior:Stimulus cues and our history of
rewards and punishments
Questions for Study:What are the “laws” that associate
our responses with stimulus conditions?
How can they be applied to improve the human condition?
Biological
Psychodynamic
Sociocultural
Cognitive
Behavioral
Humanistic
Evolutionary/Sociobiological
BehaviorismJohn B. Watson (1878-1958):
United StatesFounder of Behaviorism
Behavior = overt or observable responses or activitiesRadical reorientation of psychology as a
science of observable behaviorStudy of consciousness abandoned
Behaviorism Revisited: B.F. SkinnerB.F. Skinner (1904-1990): United
States Environmental factors determine behaviorResponses that lead to positive outcomes are
repeatedResponses that lead to negative outcomes are
not repeatedBeyond Freedom and DignityMore controversy regarding free will
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
View of Human Nature:We are driven by dark forces of
the unconscious
Perspective
What Determines Behavior:Unconscious needs, conflicts,
repressed memories, and childhood experiences
Question for Study:How does the energy generated in
the unconscious mind motivate our actions and account for
mental disorders?
Biological
Psychodynamic
Sociocultural
Cognitive
Behavioral
Humanistic
Evolutionary/Sociobiological
Sigmund Freud and the Concept of the Unconscious MindSigmund Freud (1856-1939):
Austria
Emphasis on unconscious = outside awareness
Unconscious conflict related to sexuality plays a central role in behavior
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
View of Human Nature:Emphasizes human growth,
freedom, and potential
Perspective
What Determines Behavior:The influence of self-concept, perceptions, and interpersonal relationships, and on need for
personal growth
Question for Study:How can humanistic theory be
applied to enhance mental health through counseling and therapy?
Biological
Psychodynamic
Sociocultural
Cognitive
Behavioral
Humanistic
Evolutionary/Sociobiological
Opposition to Psychoanalysis & BehaviorismCharges that both were de-
humanizingDiverse opposition groups got
together to form a loose alliance
A new school of thought emerged - HumanismLed by Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) and
Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
View of Human Nature:People are information-
processing systems
What Determines Behavior:Mental interpretation of our
experience
Question for Study:How do mental processes,
including sensation, perception, learning, memory, and language,
influence behavior?
Perspective
Biological
Psychodynamic
Sociocultural
Cognitive
Behavioral
Humanistic
Evolutionary/Sociobiological
CognitionCognition = mental processes
involved in acquiring knowledge
1950’s and 60’s – Piaget, Chomsky, and SimonApplication of scientific methods to studying
internal mental eventsCognitive psychology: the new dominant
perspective?
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
View of Human Nature:We are complex systems that
respond to hereditary and environmental influences
What Determines Behavior:Neural structures, biochemistry,
and inborn responses to external cues
Question for Study:How do heredity, the nervous
system, and the endocrine system produce behavior and
mental processes?
Perspective
Biological
Psychodynamic
Sociocultural
Cognitive
Behavioral
Humanistic
Evolutionary/Sociobiological
Biological PsychologyBiological perspective
James Olds (1956) Electrical stimulation of the brain evokes emotional
responses in animals
Roger Sperry (1981) Left and right brain specialization
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Perspective
View of Human Nature:Behavior is developed and
adapted over time
What Determines Behavior:Natural selection
Question for Study:How do behavior and individual
differences develop and change?
Biological
Psychodynamic
Sociocultural
Cognitive
Behavioral
Humanistic
Evolutionary/Sociobiological
Evolutionary PsychologyBuss, Daly & Wilson, Cosmides & Tooby – 80’s and 90’s
Studied natural selection of mating preferences, jealousy, aggression, sexual behavior, language, decision making, personality, and development
Thought provoking perspective gaining in influence, but not without criticism
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
View of Human Nature:People are social animals, so
human behavior must be interpreted in social context
Perspective
What Determines Behavior:Cultures, social norms and
expectations, social learning
Questions for Study:Under what conditions is the social and cultural situation
predictive of behavior?How are social influences different
across cultures?
Biological
Psychodynamic
Sociocultural
Cognitive
Behavioral
Humanistic
Evolutionary/Sociobiological
Contemporary Psychology: Cultural DiversityEthnocentrism – viewing one’s own
group as superior and as the standard for judging
Historically: middle and upper class white males studying middle and upper class white males
1980’s – increased interest in how cultural factors influence behavior
growing global interdependenceincreased cultural diversity
Careers & Themes
Fig 1.8 – Employment of psychologists by setting. The work settings in which psychologists are employed have become very diverse. Survey data on the primary employment setting of APA members indicates that one-third are in private practice (compared to 12% in 1976) and only 28% work in colleges and universities (compared to 47% in 1976). These data may slightly underestimate the percentage of psychologists in academia, given the competition between APA and APS to represent research psychologists. (Based on 2000 APA Directory Survey)
Studying Psychology: Seven Organizing ThemesThemes related to psychology as a
field of study:Psychology is empirical (Theme 1),
theoretically diverse (Theme 2), and it evolves in a sociohistorical context (Theme 3).
Themes related to psychology’s subject matter:Behavior is determined by multiple causes
(Theme 4), shaped by cultural heritage (Theme 5), and influenced jointly by heredity and environment (Theme 6).
Finally, people’s experience of the world is highly subjective (Theme 7).