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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
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1.1MOTIVATION
The motivation to our project SCADA SYSTEM FOR DISTRIBUTED AND
SUBSTATION AUTOMATION is designed and implements the wide area Remote
control using embedded Platform. To cut the traditional wires between sensors, wired slave
devices, and the microcontrollers and microprocessors the project is developed. This project
has three important modules; they are SCADA modem, Microcontroller unit and Driver units
of the appliances. The aim of the project is to monitor the power room electrical equipments
parameters like current, voltage and power. Display the all parameters in computer, and save all
values in that system by using embedded system technology. Such applications are motivated
us to do the Project successfully.
1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
Now a day the automation field gets a wide growth in the world wide. Under this
concept here the project is developed. To do this purposely the AT commands are developed,
by sending AT commands we can interact with PC modem. The microcontroller module
contains several controllable outlets to control.
RELATED WORK
To complete our project we studied about PIC 16f877A controller and its features. We
also studied about SCADA system, AT commands, Relays and Relay Drivers. Also we visited
sites how stuff works.com, www.Microchip.com, www.wikipedia.com.
1.4 SCOPE OF WORK
The project SCADA SYSTEM FOR DISTRIBUTED AND SUBSTATION
AUTOMATION is used in industrial electrical outlets for power control over the loads.
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THESIS OUTLINE
The report is divided into several sections and a brief overview of the section is described here.
Chapter 2- A Brief Review. This consists of Introduction and Motivation, preliminaries
Chapter 3- Approaches to the project.
Chapter 4- This consists of modules implemented. This consists of describing how to solve the
problem.
Chapter 5- This consists of software requirements of the project.
Chapter 6- This consists of Results obtained for the project.
Chapter 7- This describes conclusion part of the project.
Chapter 8- This contains Bibliography and list of web sites used.
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CHAPTER-2
BACK GROUND INFORMATION
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2.1 INTRODUCTION
The project report describes the design Development and Fabrication of One demo unit
of The project work SCADA SYSTEM FOR DISTRIBUTED AND
SUBSTATIONAUTOMATION
By using embedded systems.
Now a day, with the advancement technology, particularly in the field of
Microcontrollers, all the activities in our daily living have become a part of Information
technology and we find microcontrollers in each and every application. Thus, trend is directing
towards Microcontrollers based project works. However, in this project work SCADA Modem
used to Form the remote network. The microcontroller interacts with SCADA modem for
sending and receiving control message. Then the decisions are taken with the help of
microcontroller and associated software.
The microcontroller block is playing a major role in this project work. The micro
controller chip used in this project work is PIC 16F877A and this is like heart of the project
work. The PIC 16F877A microcontroller is a 40-pin IC.
The entire project was developed in embedded systems. A system is something that
maintains its existence and functions as a whole through the interaction of its parts. E.g. Body,
Mankind, Access Control, etc A system is a part of the world that a person or group of persons
during some time interval and for some purpose choose to regard as a whole, consisting of
interrelated components, each component characterized by properties that are selected as being
relevant to the purpose.
Embedded System is a combination of hardware and software used to achieve a single
specific task.
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Embedded systems are computer systems that monitor, respond to, or control an
external environment.
Environment connected to systems through sensors, actuators and other I/O interfaces.
Embedded system must meet timing & other constraints imposed on it by environment.
An embedded system is a microcontroller-based, software driven, reliable, real-time
control system, autonomous, or human or network interactive, operating on diverse
physical variables and in diverse environments and sold into a competitive and cost
conscious market.
An embedded system is not a computer system that is used primarily for processing, not
a software system on PC or UNIX, not a traditional business or scientific application. High-end
embedded & lower end embedded systems. High-end embedded system - Generally 32, 64 Bit
Controllers used with OS. Examples Personal Digital Assistant and Mobile phones etc. Lower
end embedded systems - Generally 8, 16 Bit Controllers used with a minimal operating systems
and hardware layout designed for the specific purpose. Examples Small controllers and devices
in our everyday life like Washing Machine, Microwave Ovens, where they are embedded in.
Microcontrollers are embedded inside some other device so that they can control the
features or actions of the project. Another name for a microcontroller therefore is Embedded
Controller. Microcontrollers are dedicated to one task and run one specific program. The
program is stored in ROM (read only memory) and generally does not change.
Microcontrollers are often low-price devices.
2.2 PRELIMINARIES
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2.2.1 INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDEDSYSTEMS
EMBEDDED SYSTEM:
Embedded System is a combination of hardware and software used to achieve a
single specific task. An embedded system is a microcontroller-based, software driven, reliable,
real-time control system, autonomous, or human or network interactive, operating on diverse
physical variables and in diverse environments and sold into a competitive and cost conscious
market.
An embedded system is not a computer system that is used primarily for
processing, not a software system on PC or UNIX, not a traditional business or scientific
application. High-end embedded & lower end embedded systems. High-end embedded system -
Generally 32, 64 Bit Controllers used with OS. Examples Personal Digital Assistant and
Mobile phones etc .Lower end embedded systems - Generally 8,16 Bit Controllers used with an
minimal operating systems and hardware layout designed for the specific purpose. Examples
Small controllers and devices in our everyday life like Washing Machine, Microwave Ovens,
where they are embedded in.
SYSTEM DESIGN CALLS:
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THE EMBEDDED SYSTEM DESIGN CYCLE
V Diagram
In this place we need to discuss the role of simulation software, real-time systems and
data acquisition in dynamic test applications. Traditional testing is referred to as static
testing where functionality of components is tested by providing known inputs and measuring
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outputs. Today there is more pressure to get products to market faster and reduce design cycle
times.
This has led to a need for dynamic testing where components are tested while in use with the
entire system either real or simulated. Because of cost and safety concerns, simulating the
rest of the the system with real-time hardware is preferred to testing components in the actual
real system.
The diagram shown on this slide is the V Diagram that is often used to describe the
development cycle. Originally developed to encapsulate the design process of software
applications, many different versions of this diagram can be found to describe different product
design cycles. Here we have shown one example of such a diagram representing the design
cycle of embedded control applications common to automotive, aerospace and defense
applications.
In this diagram the general progression in time of the development stages is shown from left to
right. Note however that this is often an iterative process and the actual development will not
proceed linearly through these steps. The goal of rapid development is to make this cycle as
efficient as possible by minimizing the iterations required for a design. If the x-axis of the
diagram is thought of as time, the goal is to narrow the V as much as possible and thereby
reduce development time.
The y-axis of this diagram can be thought of as the level at which the system components are
considered. Early on in the development, the requirements of the overall system must be
considered. As the system is divided into sub-systems and components, the process becomes
very low-level down to the point of loading code onto individual processors. Afterwards
components are integrated and tested together until such time that the entire system can enter
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final production testing. Therefore the top of the diagram represents the high-level system
view and the bottom of the diagram represents a very low-level view.
Notes:
V diagram describes lots of applicationsderived from software development.
Reason for shape, every phase of design requires a complimentary test phase. High-
level to low-level view of application.
This is a simplified version.
Loop Back/ Iterative process, X-axis is time (sum up).
Characteristics of Embedded System:
An embedded system is any computer system hidden inside a product other than a
computer
There will encounter a number of difficulties when writing embedded system software
in addition to those we encounter when we write applications
Throughput Our system may need to handle a lot of data in a short period of
time.
ResponseOur system may need to react to events quickly
TestabilitySetting up equipment to test embedded software can be difficult
DebugabilityWithout a screen or a keyboard, finding out what the software is
doing wrong (other than not working) is a troublesome problem
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Reliability embedded systems must be able to handle any situation without
human intervention
Memory space Memory is limited on embedded systems, and you must make
the software and the data fit into whatever memory exists
Program installation you will need special tools to get your software into
embedded systems
Power consumption Portable systems must run on battery power, and the
software in these systems must conserve power
Processor hogs computing that requires large amounts of CPU time can
complicate the response problem
Cost Reducing the cost of the hardware is a concern in many embedded
system projects; software often operates on hardware that is barely adequate for
the job.
Embedded systems have a microprocessor/ microcontroller and a memory. Some have
a serial port or a network connection. They usually do not have keyboards, screens or
disk drives.
Applications:
1. Military and aerospace embedded software applications
2. Communicat ion Applicat ions
3. Industr ial automation and process control software
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CLASSIFICATION
Real Time Systems.
RTS is one which has to respond to events within a specified deadline.
A right answer after the dead line is a wrong answer
RTS CLASSIFICATION
Hard Real Time Systems
Soft Real Time System
HARD REAL TIME SYSTEM
"Hard" real-time systems have very narrow response time.
Example: Nuclear power system, Cardiac pacemaker.
SOFT REAL TIME SYSTEM
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"Soft" real-time systems have reduced constrains on"lateness" but still must operate very quickly and repeatable.
Example: Railway reservation system takes a few extra
seconds the data remains valid.
LANGUAGES USED
C
C++
Java
Linux
Ada
Assembly
MPLAB FEATURES
MPLAB Integrated Development Environment (IDE) is a free, integrated toolset for the
development of embedded applications employing Microchip's PIC and dsPIC
microcontrollers.
MPLAB Integrated Development Environment (IDE) is a free, integrated toolset for the
development of embedded applications employing Microchip's PIC and dsPIC
microcontrollers.
MPLAB IDE runs as a 32-bit application on MS Windows, is easy to use and
includes a host of free software components for fast application development and super-
charged debugging.
MPLAB IDE also serves as a single, unified graphical user interface for additional
Microchip and third party software and hardware development tools. Moving between tools is a
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snap, and upgrading from the free software simulator to hardware debug and programming
tools is done in a flash because MPLAB IDE has the same user interface for all tools.
MPLAB IDEs SIM, high speed software simulator for PIC and dsPIC (Digital Signal
Processing PIC Microcontroller) devices with peripheral simulation, complex stimulus
injection and register logging.
2.2.1 INTRODUCTION TO SCADA:
SCADA stands for Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition. It generally refers to an
industrial control system: a computer system monitoring and controlling a process. The process
can be industrial, infrastructure or facility based as described below:
Industrial processes include those of manufacturing, production, power
generation, fabrication, and refining, and may run in continuous, batch, repetitive, or discrete
modes.
Infrastructure processes may be public or private, and include water treatment
and distribution, wastewater collection and treatment, oil and gas pipelines, electrical power
transmission and distribution, and large communication systems.
Facility processes occur both in public facilities and private ones, including
buildings, airports, ships, and space stations. They monitor and control HVAC, access, andenergy consumption
The term SCADA usually refers to centralized systems which monitor and control entire sites, or
complexes of systems spread out over large areas (anything between an industrial plant and a
country). Most control actions are performed automatically by remote terminal units
("RTUs") or by programmable logic controllers ("PLCs"). Host control functions are usually
restricted to basic overriding orsupervisory level intervention. For example, a PLC may
control the flow of cooling water through part of an industrial process, but the SCADA
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system may allow operators to change the set points for the flow, and enable alarm
conditions, such as loss of flow and high temperature, to be displayed and recorded. The
feedback control loop passes through the RTU or PLC, while the SCADA system monitors
the overall performance of the loop.
Data acquisition begins at the RTU or PLC level and includes meter readings and equipment status
reports that are communicated to SCADA as required. Data is then compiled and formatted
in such a way that a control room operator using the HMI can make supervisory decisions to
adjust or override normal RTU (PLC) controls. Data may also be fed to a Historian, often
built on a commodity Database Management System, to allow trending and other analytical
auditing.
Data acquisition begins at the RTU or PLC level and includes meter readings and equipment status
reports that are communicated to SCADA as required. Data is then compiled and formatted in
such a way that a control room operator using the HMI can make supervisory decisions to
adjust or override normal RTU (PLC) controls. Data may also be fed to a Historian, often built
on a commodity Database Management System, to allow trending and other analytical auditing
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SCADA Architectures
SCADA systems have evolved through 3 generations as follows:
First Generation: "Monolithic"
In the first generation computing was done by Mainframe systems. Networks didnt
exist at the time SCADA was developed. Thus SCADA systems were independent systems
with no connectivity to other systems. Wide Area Networks were later designed by RTU
vendors to communicate with the RTU. The communication protocols used were often
proprietary at that time. The first generation SCADA System was redundant since a back-up
mainframe system was connected at the bus level and was used in the event of failure of the
main mainframe system.
Second Generation: "Distributed"
The processing was distributed across multiple stations which were connected through
LAN and they shared information in real time. Each station was responsible for a particular
task thus making the size and cost of each station less than the one used in First Generation.
The network protocols used were still mostly proprietary.
Third Generation: "Networked"
These are the current generation SCADA systems which use open system architecture
rather than a vendor controlled proprietary environment. The SCADA system utilizes open
standard and protocols thus distributing functionality across a WAN rather than a LAN. It is
easier to connect third party peripheral devices like printers, disk drives, tape drives due to the
use of open architecture. WAN protocols such as Internet Protocol (IP) are used for
communication between the master station and communications equipment. This on the other
hand has put a question on the security of SCADA system which seems to be vulnerable to
cyber-warfare and cyber terrorism attacks.
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2.2.3 INTRODUCTION TO RELAYS
A relay is usually an electromechanical device that is actuated by an electrical current.
The current flowing in one circuit causes the opening or closing of another circuit. Relays are
like remote control switches and are used in many applications because of their relative
simplicity, long life, and proven high reliability. Relays are used in a wide variety of
applications throughout industry, such as in telephone exchanges, digital computers and
automation systems. Highly sophisticated relays are utilized to protect electric power systems
against trouble and power blackouts as well as to regulate and control the generation and
distribution of power. In the home, relays are used in refrigerators, washing machines and
dishwashers, and heating and air-conditioning controls. Although relays are generally
associated with electrical circuitry, there are many other types, such as pneumatic and
hydraulic. Input may be electrical and output directly mechanical, or vice versa.
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CHAPTER-3
IMPORTANT APPROACHES TO THE PROJECT
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3.1 MICROCONTROLLER
3.1.1 INTRODUCTION TO MICROCONTROLLER
A computer-on-a-chip is a variation of a microprocessor which combines the processor
core (CPU), some memory, and I/O (input/output) lines, all on one chip. The computer-on-a-
chip is called the microcomputer whose proper meaning is a computer using a (number of)
microprocessor(s) as its CPUs, while the concept of the microcomputer is known to be a
microcontroller. A microcontroller can be viewed as a set of digital logic circuits integrated on
a single silicon chip. This chip is used for only specific applications.
Most microcontrollers do not require a substantial amount of time to learn how to
efficiently program them, although many of them, which have quirks, which you will have to
understand before you, attempt to develop your first application.
Along with microcontrollers getting faster, smaller and more power efficient they are
also getting more and more features. Often, the first version of microcontroller will just have
memory and digital I/O, but as the device family matures, more and more pat numbers with
varying features will be available.
In this project we used PIC 16f877A microcontroller. For most applications, we will be
able to find a device within the family that meets our specifications with a minimum of external
devices, or an external but which will make attaching external devices easier, both in terms of
wiring and programming.
For many microcontrollers, programmers can built very cheaply, or even built in to the
final application circuit eliminating the need for a separate circuit. Also simplifying this
requirement is the availability of micro-controllers wit SRAM and EEPROM for control store,
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which will allow program development without having to remove the micro controller for the
application circuit.
3.1.2 MICRO CONTROLLER CORE FEATURES
High-performance RISC CPU.
Only 35 single word instructions to learn.
All single cycle instructions except for program branches which are two cycle.
Operating speed: DC - 20 MHz clock input DC - 200 ns instruction cycle.
Up to 8K x 14 words of FLASH Program Memory, Up to 368 x 8 bytes of Data
Memory (RAM) Up to 256 x 8 bytes of EEPROM data memory.
Pin out compatible to the PIC16C73B/74B/76/77
Interrupt capability (up to 14 sources)
Eight level deep hardware stack
Direct, indirect and relative addressing modes.
Power-on Reset (POR).
Power-up Timer (PWRT) and Oscillator Start-up Timer (OST).
Watchdog Timer (WDT) with its own on-chip RC oscillator for reliable operation.
Programmable code-protection.
Power saving SLEEP mode.
Selectable oscillator options.
Low-power, high-speed CMOS FLASH/EEPROM technology.
Fully static design.
.
(ICSP)
In-Circuit Serial Programming
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Single 5V In-Circuit Serial Programming capability.
In-Circuit Debugging via two pins.
Processor read/write access to program memory.
Wide operating voltage range: 2.0V to 5.5V.
High Sink/Source Current: 25 mA.
Commercial and Industrial temperature ranges.
Low-power consumption.
In this project we used PIC 16f877A microcontroller. PIC means Peripheral Interface
Controller. The PIC family having different series, the series are 12- Series, 14- Series, 16-
Series, 18- Series, and 24- Series. We used 16 Series PIC microcontrollers.
3.1.3 ADVANTAGES OF USING A MICROCONTROLLER OVER
MICROPROCESSOR
A designer will use a Microcontroller to
Gather input from various sensors
Process this input into a set of actions
Use the output mechanisms on the Microcontroller to do something useful
RAM and ROM are inbuilt in the MC.
Cheap compared to MP.
Multi machine control is possible simultaneously.
Examples
The 8051 (ATMEL), PIC (Microchip), Motorola (Motorola), ARM Processor
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3.1.4 APPLICATIONS:
Cell phones.
Computers.
Robots.
Interfacing to two pcs.
3.3PIC MICROCONTROLLER 16F877A
3.3.1INTRODUCTION TO PIC MICROCONTROLLER 16F877A
The PIC 16f877A microcontroller is a 40-pin IC. The first pin of the controller is
MCLR pin and the 5V dc supply is given to this pin through 10K resistor. This supply is also
given to 11th pin directly. The 12th pin of the controller is grounded. A tank circuit consists of a
4 MHZ crystal oscillator and two 22pf capacitors is connected to 13th and 14th pins of the PIC.
3.2.1 FEATURES OF PIC MICROCONTROLLER 16F877A
Operating frequency: DC-20Mhz.
Flash program memory (14 bit words):8K
Data memory (in bytes): 368
EEPROM Data memory (in bytes):256
Interrupts: 15
I/o ports: A, B, C, D, E
Timers: 3
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Analog comparators: 2
Instructions: 35
3.2.3 PIN DIAGRAM OF PIC 16 F874A/877A
FIG 3.1 PIN DIAGRAM OF PIC 16 F874A/877A
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3.2.4 FUNCTIONAL BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PIC 16F877A
FIG 3.2 PIN DIAGRAM OF PIC 16F874A/877A
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POWER SUPPLY UNIT
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
FIG 3.3 POWER SUPPLY UNIT
POWER SUPPLY UNIT COSISTS OF FOLLOWING UNITS
1) Step down transformer
2) Rectifier unit
3) Input filter
4) Regulator unit
v) Output filter
3.3.1 STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER
The Step down Transformer is used to step down the main supply voltage from 230V
AC to lower value. This 230 AC voltage cannot be used directly, thus it is stepped down. The
Transformer consists of primary and secondary coils. To reduce or step down the voltage, the
transformer is designed to contain less number of turns in its secondary core. The output from
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the secondary coil is also AC waveform. Thus the conversion from AC to DC is essential. This
conversion is achieved by using the Rectifier Circuit/Unit.
Step down transformers can step down incoming voltage, which enables you to have
the correct voltage input for your electrical needs. For example, if our equipment has been
specified for input voltage of 12 volts, and the main power supply is 230 volts, we will need a
step down transformer, which decreases the incoming electrical voltage to be compatible with
your 12 volt equipment.
3.3.2 RECTIFIER UNIT
The Rectifier circuit is used to convert the AC voltage into its corresponding DC
voltage. There are Half-Wave, Full-Wave and bridge Rectifiers available for this specific
function. The most important and simple device used in Rectifier circuit is the diode. The
simple function of the diode is to conduct when forward biased and not to conduct in reverse
bias.
Bridge rectifier: A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge arrangement to
achieve full-wave rectification. This is a widely used configuration, both with individual diodes
wired as shown and with single component bridges where the diode bridge is wired internally.
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A diode bridge or bridge rectifier is an arrangement of fourdiodes in a bridge
configuration that provides the same polarity of output voltage for either polarity of input
voltage. When used in its most common application, for conversion ofalternating current (AC)
input into direct current (DC) output, it is known as a bridge rectifier. A bridge rectifier
providesfull-wave rectification from a two-wire AC input, resulting in lower cost and weight
as compared to a center-tappedtransformerdesign.
The Forward Bias is achieved by connecting the diodes positive with positive of the
battery and negative with batterys negative. The efficient circuit used is the Full wave Bridge
rectifier circuit. The output voltage of the rectifier is in rippled form, the ripples from the
obtained DC voltage are removed using other circuits available. The circuit used for removing
the ripples is called Filter circuit.
3.3.3 INPUT FILTER
Capacitors are used as filter. The ripples from the DC voltage are removed and pure DC
voltage is obtained. And also these capacitors are used to reduce the harmonics of the input
voltage. The primary action performed by capacitor is charging and discharging. It charges in
positive half cycle of the AC voltage and it will discharge in negative half cycle. So it allows
only AC voltage and does not allow the DC voltage. The 1000f capacitor serves as a
"reservoir" which maintains a reasonable input voltage to the 7805 throughout the entire cycle
of the ac line voltage. The four rectifier diodes keep recharging the reservoir capacitor on
alternate half-cycles of the line voltage, and the capacitor is quite capable of sustaining any
reasonable load in between charging pulses. This filter is fixed before the regulator. Thus the
output is free from ripples. Input side the low pass filter has been used.
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Low pass filter:
One simple electrical circuit that will serve as a low-pass filter consists of a resistorin
series with a load, and a capacitor in parallel with the load. The capacitor exhibits reactance,
and blocks low-frequency signals, causing them to go through the load instead. At higher
frequencies the reactance drops, and the capacitor effectively functions as a short circuit. The
combination of resistance and capacitance gives you the time constant of the filter = RC
(represented by the Greek letter tau). The break frequency, also called the turnover frequency
orcutoff frequency (in hertz), is determined by the time constant: or equivalently (in radians
per second):
One way to understand this circuit is to focus on the time the capacitor takes to charge.
It takes time to charge or discharge the capacitor through that resistor:
At low frequencies, there is plenty of time for the capacitor to charge up to
practically the same voltage as the input voltage.
At high frequencies, the capacitor only has time to charge up a small amount
before the input switches direction. The output goes up and down only a small fraction of the
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amount the input goes up and down. At double the frequency, there's only time for it to charge
up half the amount.
3.3.4 REGULATOR UNIT
FIG 3.4 7805 REGULATOR
Regulator regulates the output voltage to be always constant. The output voltage is
maintained irrespective of the fluctuations in the input AC voltage. As and then the AC voltage
changes, the DC voltage also changes. Thus to avoid this Regulators are used. Also when the
internal resistance of the power supply is greater than 30 ohms, the output gets affected. Thus
this can be successfully reduced here. Meanwhile it also contains current-limiting circuitry and
thermal overload protection, so that the IC won't be damaged in case of excessive load current;
it will reduce its output voltage instead. The regulators are mainly classified for low voltage
and for high voltage. Further they can also be classified as:
1) Positive regulator
Input pin
Ground pin
Output pin
It regulates the positive voltage.
2) Negative regulator
Ground pin
Input pin
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Output pin
It regulates the negative voltage.
7805 VOLTAGE REGULATOR:
The 7805 provides circuit designers with an easy way to regulate DC voltages to 5v.
Encapsulated in a single chip/package (IC), the 7805 is a positive voltage DC regulatorthat has
only 3 terminals. They are: Input voltage, Ground, Output Voltage.
7812 12V INTEGRATED CIRCUIT 3-TERMINAL POSITIVE VOLTAGE
REGULATOR:
The 7812 fixed voltage regulator is a monolithic integrated circuit in
a TO220 type package designed for use in a wide variety of applications
including local, onboard regulation. This regulator employs internal current
limiting, thermal shutdown, and safe area compensation.
With adequate heat-sinking it can deliver output currents in excess
of 1.0 ampere. Although designed primarily as a fixed voltage regulator,
this device can be used with external components to obtain adjustable
voltages and currents.
3.3.5 OUTPUT FILTER
The Filter circuit is often fixed after the Regulator circuit. Capacitor is most often used
as filter. The principle of the capacitor is to charge and discharge. It charges during the positive
half cycle of the AC voltage and discharges during the negative half cycle. The 10f and .01f
capacitors serve to help keep the power supply output voltage constant when load conditions
change. The electrolytic capacitor smooths out any long-term or low frequency variations.
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However, at high frequencies this capacitor is not very efficient. Therefore, the .01f is
included to bypass high-frequency changes, such as digital IC switching effects, to ground.
RELAY DRIVER
The ULN2001A, ULN2002A, ULN2003 and ULN2004Aare high Voltage, high current
Darlington arrays each containing seven open collector Darlington pairs with common emitters.
Each channel rated at 500mAand can withstand peak currents of 600mA.Suppressiondiodesare
included for inductive load driving and the inputs are pinned opposite the outputs to simplify
board layout.
These versatile devices are useful for driving a wide range of loads including solenoids,
relays DC motors; LED displays filament lamps, thermal print heads and high power buffers.
The ULN2001A/2002A/2003A and 2004A are supplied in 16pin plastic DIP packages with a
copper lead frame to reduce thermal resistance.
They are available also in small outline package (SO-16) as
ULN2001D/2002D/2003D/2004D.
3.4.1 FEATURES OF DRIVER
SEVENDARLINGTONS PER PACKAGE.
OUTPUT CURRENT 500mA PER DRIVER (600mA PEAK)
OUTPUT VOLTAGE 50V.
INTEGRATED SUPPRESSION DIODES FOR
INDUCTIVE LOADS.
OUTPUTS CAN BE PARALLELED FOR
HIGHERCURRENT.
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TTL/CMOS/PMOS/DTLCOMPATIBLE INPUTS.
INPUTS PINNED OPPOSITE OUTPUTS TO
SIMPLIFYLAYOUT
3.4.2 PIN CONNECTION
FIG 3.5PIN CONNECTIONS OF A RELAY
3.4.3 RELAYS
A relay is usually an electromechanical device that is actuated by an electrical current.
The current flowing in one circuit causes the opening or closing of another circuit. Relays are
like remote control switches and are used in many applications because of their relative
simplicity, long life, and proven high reliability. Relays are used in a wide variety of
applications throughout industry, such as in telephone exchanges, digital computers and
automation systems. Highly sophisticated relays are utilized to protect electric power systems
against trouble and power blackouts as well as to regulate and control the generation and
distribution of power. In the home, relays are used in refrigerators, washing machines and
dishwashers, and heating and air-conditioning controls. Although relays are generally
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associated with electrical circuitry, there are many other types, such as pneumatic and
hydraulic. Input may be electrical and output directly mechanical, or vice versa.
All relays contain a sensing unit, the electric coil, which is powered by AC or DC
current. When the applied current or voltage exceeds a threshold value, the coil activates the
armature, which operates either to close the open contacts or to open the closed contacts. When
a power is supplied to the coil, it generates a magnetic force that actuates the switch
mechanism. The magnetic force is, in effect, relaying the action from one circuit to another.
The first circuit is called the control circuit; the second is called the load circuit.
On/Off Control: Example: Air conditioning control, used to limit and control a high
power load, such as a compressor Limit Control:
Example: Motor Speed Control, used to disconnect a motor if it runs slower or faster
than the desired speed
Logic Operation: Example: Test Equipment, used to connect the instrument to a
number of testing points on the device under test.
3.4.4 ELECTROMECHANICAL RELAYS
In our project we will be using an electromechanical relay, which will be a 5 pin relay
and the working of the relay will be like as.The general-purpose relay is rated by the amount of
current its switch contacts can handle. Most versions of the general-purpose relay have one to
eight poles and can be single or double throw. These are found in computers, copy machines,
and other consumer electronic equipment and appliances.
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FIG 3.6 MECHANICAL RELAY
3.4.4.1 INTERNAL OPERATION OF MECHANICAL RELAYS
Standard: Single Side Stable with any of the following three different methods for
closing contacts:
1. Flexure Type: The armature actuates the contact spring directly, and the contact is
driven into a stationary contact, closing the circuit.
2. Lift-off Type: The moveable piece is energized by the armature, and the contact
closes
3. Plunger Type: The lever action caused by the energization of the armature produces
a long stroke action. Reed: A Single Side Stable Contact that involves low contact pressure and
a simple contact point.
4. Polarized: Can be either a single side stable or dual-winding. A permanent magnet is
used to either attract or repel the armature that controls the contact. A definite polarity (+ or -)
is required
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By the relay coil. The latching option makes a polarized relay dual-winding, meaning it
remains in the current state after the coil is de-energized.
3.4.4.5 LOAD TYPES
Load parameters include the maximum permissible voltage and the maximum
permissible current. The relay can handle both volts and amps. Both the size of the load and its
type are important. There are four types of loads:
1) Resistive, 2) Inductive, 3) AC or DC, and 4) High or Low Inrush
3.4.5.1 RESISTIVE LOAD
It is the one that primarily offers resistance to the flow of current. Examples of resistive
loads include electric heaters, ranges and ovens, toasters and irons.
3.4.5.2 INDUCTIVE LOADS
It include power drills, electric mixers, fans, sewing machines and vacuum cleaners.
Relays that are going to be subjected to high-inrush inductive loads, such as an AC motor, will
often be rated in horsepower, rather than in volts and amps. This rating reflects the amount of
power the relay contacts can handle at the moment the device is turned on (or switched).
3.4.5.3 AC OR DC
This affects the contacts circuit of the relay (due to EMF) and the timing sequencing. It
may result in performance issues in the switching capacity of the relay for different load types
(I.e. resistive, inductive, etc.).
3.4.5.4 HIGH OR LOW IN RUSH
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Some load types draw significantly higher amounts of current (amperage) when first
turned then they do when the circuit later stabilizes (loads may also pulsate as the circuit
continues operating, thus increasing and decreasing the current). An example of a high inrush
load is a light bulb, which may draw 10 or more times its normal operating current when first
turned on (some manufacturers refer to this as lamp load).
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CHAPTER-4
DESCRIBING ABOUT PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
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4.1 BLOCK DIAGRAME OF SCADA SYSTEM FOR DISTRIBUTED AND
SUBSTATION AUTOMATION
FIG 4.1.1BLOCK DIAGRAM
38
Microcontroller
unit
Key-board
SCADA unitPC
Electrical
equipments &
loads
Current
transformer
Potential
transformer
Signal
conditioning unit
Driver unit
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4.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE BLOCK DIAGRAM
The entire project is powered with the power supply unit, the project needs two
different dc power supply one is dc +12v supply it is maintained through LM7812 positive 12v
regulator and one more dc +5v supply it is maintained through LM7805 positive 5v regulator.
The project is separated by three parts, first one is parameters sensing part, second one is
parameter calculation and display part, third one is save all values in computer. In this first part
the current and voltage values are sensed by the current transformers and voltage transformers
at RTU(Remote Terminal Unit, i.e., Remote Terminal Units (RTUs) connecting to sensors in
the process, converting sensor signals to digital data and sending digital data to the supervisory
system.). In that second part the sensing values are calculated by microcontroller.
The block diagram consists of mainly five parts; they are controller unit, SCADA unit
with keypad, driver unit, signal conditioning unit with current transformer and potential
transformer and power supply unit. Only one relay is connected to the driver circuit.
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4.3 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
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4.4 POWER SUPPLY DIAGRAM
FIG 4.3 POWER SUPPLY DIAGRAM
4.5 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
4.5.1 POWER SUPPLY
Power supply unit consists of Step down transformer, Rectifier, Input filter,
Regulator unit, Output filter.
The Step down Transformer is used to step down the main supply voltage from
230V AC to lower value. This 230 AC voltage cannot be used directly, thus it is stepped down.
The Transformer consists of primary and secondary coils. To reduce or step down the voltage,
the transformer is designed to contain less number of turns in its secondary core. The output
from the secondary coil is also AC waveform. Thus the conversion from AC to DC is essential.
This conversion is achieved by using the Rectifier Circuit/Unit.
The Rectifier circuit is used to convert the AC voltage into its corresponding DC
voltage. There are Half-Wave, Full-Wave and bridge Rectifiers available for this specific
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function. The most important and simple device used in Rectifier circuit is the diode. The
simple function of the diode is to conduct when forward biased and not to conduct in reverse
bias.
The Forward Bias is achieved by connecting the diodes positive with positive of the
battery and negative with batterys negative. The efficient circuit used is the Full wave Bridge
rectifier circuit. The output voltage of the rectifier is in rippled form, the ripples from the
obtained DC voltage are removed using other circuits available. The circuit used for removing
the ripples is called Filter circuit.
Capacitors are used as filter. The ripples from the DC voltage are removed and
pure DC voltage is obtained. And also these capacitors are used to reduce the harmonics of the
input voltage. The primary action performed by capacitor is charging and discharging. It
charges in positive half cycle of the AC voltage and it will discharge in negative half cycle.
Here we used 1000F capacitor. So it allows only AC voltage and does not allow the DC
voltage. This filter is fixed before the regulator. Thus the output is free from ripples.
Regulator regulates the output voltage to be always constant. The output voltage is
maintained irrespective of the fluctuations in the input AC voltage. As and then the AC voltage
changes, the DC voltage also changes. Thus to avoid this Regulators are used. Also when the
internal resistance of the power supply is greater than 30 ohms, the output gets affected. Thus
this can be successfully reduced here. The regulators are mainly classified for low voltage and
for high voltage. Here we used 7805 positive regulator. It reduces the 6V dc voltage to 5V dc
Voltage.
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The Filter circuit is often fixed after the Regulator circuit. Capacitor is most often used
as filter. The principle of the capacitor is to charge and discharge. It charges during the positive
half cycle of the AC voltage and discharges during the negative half cycle. So it allows only
AC voltage and does not allow the DC voltage. This filter is fixed after the Regulator circuit to
filter any of the possibly found ripples in the output received finally. Here we used 0.1F
capacitor. The output at this stage is 5V and is given to the Microcontroller
In the power supply circuit two regulators are used. 7805 regulator is used to
produce positive 5V dc and 7812 regulator produces positive 12V dc voltage. Relays and ULN
2003 drivers operates at 12V dc and microcontroller and sensors are operated at 5V dc voltage.
The output of the 7805 regulator is connected to PIC 16f877A microcontroller, sensors and the
output of the 7812 regulator is connected to driver ICs and relays.
4.5.2 CONTROLLER CIRCUIT
The PIC 16f877A microcontroller is a 40-pin IC. The first pin of the controller is
MCLR pin and the 5V dc supply is given to this pin through 10K resistor. This supply is also
given to 11th pin directly. The 12th pin of the controller is grounded. A tank circuit consists of a
4 MHZ crystal oscillator and two 22pf capacitors are connected to 13th and 14th pins of the PIC.
The circuit consists one driver IC. IC ULN 2003 is acts as driver. It is a 16- pin IC. This
is of NPN transistor type. And this IC is a combination of 7 transistors. At a time we can
connect seven loads to each IC. In this project we used 4 relays and connected four relays to
driver. These relays act as switches also. The 8th pin of driver ICs is grounded and the 9 th pin is
connected to 12V dc voltage which is from 7812 regulator.
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First to fourth pins of driver IC are connected to RB0 to RB3 pins of the controller
respectively. Similarly 13
th
to 16
th
pins are connected to Relays R4, R3, R2, and R1
respectively. The relays used in this project are of Single pole Single throw type.
The Relay Driver Circuit is the main circuit that enables the actual control over the
applications. As per the project designed, the Relay Driver circuit signals the appliances to be
used if the user is valid or authenticated. Here we are using transistor as the relay driver circuit.
Relay is connected with the transistor, which generally contains five pins totally. The first two
pins are connected with the transistor and contain the magnetic coil wound between them. The
rest of the pins are common point, Normally Open (NO) point and Normally Close (NC) point.
Initially common point is in contact with Normally Close point. The magnetic coil also
contains an arrangement very similar to that of a hook. When supply is given at the supply
point, the magnetic coil of the relay gets energized or activated. Due to this a magnetic field is
created that lifts the hook upwards. Thus the arrangement that was initially closed gets opened
now. The status of the relay point gets changed (i.e. common point gets connected with
normally open point).
The status of the relay is depends upon the conduction of the transistor. The transistor
configuration used here is that of common emitter mode. The conduction of the transistor
depends on the base voltage of the transistor. The supply to the transistor is given from the
regulator of the power supply board. Normally transistor acts as a switch. The switch then gets
activated by the Microcontroller.
The output of the relay driver circuit is given to any of the port pins. The Microcontroller is
programmed to respond corresponding to the relay signal obtained. Thus the transistor acts as a
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switch to control the relay and indirectly controls the appliances. The output pins of the relays
are connected to the load, here only the phase of load is coming through relays the neutral is
connected directly to the load. This connection is actually as manual switch.
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CHAPTER-5
SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS
SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS
5.1 SOFTWARE TOOLS
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MPLAB
Protel
Propic
HI-Tech PIC C Compiler
5.2 MPLAB INTEGRATION
MPLAB Integrated Development Environment (IDE) is a free, integrated toolset for the
development of embedded applications employing Microchip's PIC micro and dsPIC
microcontrollers. MPLAB IDE runs as a 32-bit application on MS Windows, is easy to use and
includes a host of free software components for fast application development and super-
charged debugging. MPLAB IDE also serves as a single, unified graphical user interface for
additional Microchip and third party software and hardware development tools. Moving
between tools is a snap, and upgrading from the free simulator to MPLAB ICD 2 or the
MPLAB ICE emulator is done in a flash because MPLAB IDE has the same user interface for
all tools.
Choose MPLAB C18, the highly optimized compiler for the PIC18 series
microcontrollers, or try the newest Microchip's language tools compiler, MPLAB C30, targeted
at the high performance PIC24 and dsPIC digital signal controllers. Or, use one of the many
products from third party language tools vendors. They integrate into MPLAB IDE to function
transparently from the MPLAB project manager, editor and compiler.
5.3INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED C:
Ex: Hitec c, Keil c
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HI-TECH Software makes industrial-strength software development tools and C
compilers that help software developers write compact, efficient embedded processor code.
For over two decades HI-TECH Software has delivered the industry's most reliable
embedded software development tools and compilers for writing efficient and compact code to
run on the most popular embedded processors. Used by tens of thousands of customers
including General Motors, Whirlpool, Qualcomm, John Deere and many others, HI-TECH's
reliable development tools and C compilers, combined with world-class support have helped
serious embedded software programmers to create hundreds of breakthrough new solutions.
Whichever embedded processor family you are targeting with your software, whether it
is the ARM, PICC or 8051 series, HI-TECH tools and C compilers can help you write better
code and bring it to market faster.
HI-TECH PICC is a high-performance C compiler for the Microchip PIC micro
10/12/14/16/17 series of microcontrollers. HI-TECH PICC is an industrial-strength ANSI C
compiler - not a subset implementation like some other PIC compilers. The PICC compiler
implements full ISO/ANSI C, with the exception of recursion. All data types are supported
including 24 and 32 bit IEEE standard floating point. HI-TECH PICC makes full use of
specific PIC features and using an intelligent optimizer, can generate high-quality code easily
rivaling hand-written assembler. Automatic handling of page and bank selection frees the
programmer from the trivial details of assembler code.
5.4 EMBEDDED C COMPILER
ANSI C - full featured and portable
Reliable - mature, field-proven technology
Multiple C optimization levels
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An optimizing assembler
Full linker, with overlaying of local variables to minimize RAM usage
Comprehensive C library with all source code provided
Includes support for 24-bit and 32-bit IEEE floating point and 32-bit long data types
Mixed C and assembler programming
Unlimited number of source files
Listings showing generated assembler
Compatible - integrates into the MPLAB IDE, MPLAB ICD and most 3rd-party
development tools
Runs on multiple platforms: Windows, Linux, UNIX, Mac OS X, Solaris
5.5 EMBEDDED DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT
This environment allows you to manage all of your PIC projects. You can compile,
assemble and link your embedded application with a single step.
Optionally, the compiler may be run directly from the command line, allowing you to
compile, assemble and link using one command. This enables the compiler to be integrated into
third party development environments, such as Microchip's MPLAB IDE.
5.6 EMBEDDED SYSTEM TOOLS
5.6.1 ASSEMBLER
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An assembler is a computer program for translating assembly language essentially, a
mnemonic representation of machine language into object code. A cross assembler (see
cross compiler) produces code for one type of processor, but runs on another. The
computational step where an assembler is run is known as assembly time. Translating assembly
instruction mnemonics into opcodes, assemblers provide the ability to use symbolic names for
memory locations (saving tedious calculations and manually updating addresses when a
program is slightly modified), and macro facilities for performing textual substitution
typically used to encode common short sequences of instructions to run inline instead of in a
subroutine. Assemblers are far simpler to write than compilers forhigh-level languages.
5.6.2 ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE HAS SEVERAL BENEFITS
Speed: Assembly language programs are generally the fastest programs around.
Space: Assembly language programs are often the smallest.
Capability: You can do things in assembly which are difficult or impossible in High
level languages.
Knowledge: Your knowledge of assembly language will help you write better
programs, even when using High level languages. An example of an assembler we use in our
project is RAD 51.
5.6.3 SIMULATOR
50
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Simulator is a machine that simulates an environment for the purpose of training or
research. We use a UMPS simulator for this purpose in our project.
5.6.4 UMPS
Universal microprocessor program simulator simulates a microcontroller with its
external environment. UMPS is able to simulate external components connected to the
microcontroller. Then, debug step is dramatically reduced. UMPS is not dedicated to only one
microcontroller family, it can simulate all kind of microcontrollers. The main limitation is to
have less than 64K-Bytes of RAM and ROM space and the good microcontroller library.
UMPS provide all the facilities other low-cost simulator does not have. It offers the user to see
the "real effect" of a program and a way to change the microcontroller family without changing
IDE. UMPS provide a low-cost solution to the problems. UMPS is really the best solution to
your evaluation.
5.6.5 UMPS KEY FEATURES
The speed, UMPS can run as fast as 1/5 the real microcontroller speed. No need to wait
2 days to see the result of a LCD routine access. All the microcontroller parts are
simulated, interrupts, communication protocol, parallel handshake, timer and so on.
UMPS have an integrated assembler/disassembler and debugger. It is able to accept an
external assembler or compiler. It has a text editor which is not limited to 64K-bytes
and shows keyword with color. It can also communicate with an external compiler to
integrate all the debug facilities you need.
UMPS is universal, it can easily be extended to other microcontroller with a library.
Ask us for toolkit development.
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External resource simulation is not limited. It can be extended to your proper needs by
writing your own DLL.
UMPS allows you to evaluate at the lowest cost the possibility to build a
microcontroller project without any cable. - UMPS include a complete documentation
on each microcontroller which describe special registers and each instruction
5.6.6COMPILER
A compiler is a program that reads a program in one language, the source language and
translates into an equivalent program in another language, the target language. The translation
process should also report the presence of errors in the source program.
Source
Program Compiler
Target
Program
Error
Messages
There are two parts of compilation. The analysis part breaks up the source program into
constant piece and creates an intermediate representation of the source program. The synthesis
part constructs the desired target program from the intermediate representation.
5.6.7 COUSINS OF THE COMPILER ARE
1. Preprocessor.
2. Assembler.
3. Loader and Link-editor.
A naive approach to that front end might run the phases serially.
1. Lexical analyzer takes the source program as an input and produces a long string
of tokens.
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2. Syntax Analyzer takes an out of lexical analyzer and produces a large tree.
Semantic analyzer takes the output of syntax analyzer and produces another tree.
Similarly, intermediate code generator takes a tree as an input produced by semantic analyzer
and produces intermediate code
5.6.8 PHASES OF COMPILER
The compiler has a number of phases plus symbol table manager and an error handler.
Input Source
Program
Lexical
Analyzer
Syntax
Analyzer
Symbol
Table
Manager
Semantic
Analyzer
Error
Handler
Intermediate
Code
Generator
Code
Optimizer
Code
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Generator
Out Target
Program
FABRICATION DETAILS
The fabrication of one demonstration unit is carried out in the following sequence.
Finalizing the total circuit diagram, listing out the components and sources of
procurement.
Procuring the components, testing the components and screening the components.
Making layout, repairing the interconnection diagram as per the circuit diagram.
Assembling the components as per the component layout and circuit diagram and
soldering components.
Integrating the total unit, interwiring the unit and final testing the unit.
5.7 DESIGN OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM
Like every other system development design cycle embedded system too have a design
cycle. The flow of the system will be like as given below. For any design cycle these will be
the implementation steps. From the initial state of the project to the final fabrication the design
considerations will be taken like the software consideration and the hardware components,
sensor, input and output. The electronics usually uses either a microprocessor or a
microcontroller. Some large or old systems use general-purpose mainframe computers or
minicomputers.
USER INTERFACES
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User interfaces for embedded systems vary widely, and thus deserve some special
comment. User interface is the ultimate aim for an embedded module as to the user to check the
output with complete convenience. One standard interface, widely used in embedded systems,
uses two buttons (the absolute minimum) to control a menu system (just to be clear, one button
should be "next menu entry" the other button should be "select this menu entry").
Another basic trick is to minimize and simplify the type of output. Designs sometimes
use a status light for each interface plug, or failure condition, to tell what failed. A cheap
variation is to have two light bars with a printed matrix of errors that they select- the user can
glue on the labels for the language that he speaks. For example, most small computer printers
use lights labeled with stick-on labels that can be printed in any language. In some markets,
these are delivered with several sets of labels, so customers can pick the most comfortable
language.
In many organizations, one person approves the user interface. Often this is a
customer, the major distributor or someone directly responsible for selling the system.
PLATFORM
There are many different CPU architectures used in embedded designs such as ARM,
MIPS, Coldfire/68k, PowerPC, X86, PIC,8051, Atmel AVR, H8, SH, V850, FR-V, M32Retc.
This in contrast to the desktop computer market, which as of this writing (2003) is
limited to just a few competing architectures, mainly the Intel/AMD x86, and the
Apple/Motorola/IBM PowerPC, used in the Apple Macintosh. With the growing acceptance of
Java in this field, there is a tendency to even further eliminate the dependency on specific
CPU/hardware (and OS) requirements.
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Standard PC/104 is a typical base for small, low-volume embedded and ruggedized system
design. These often use DOS,Linux or an embedded real-time operating system such as QNX
orInferno.
A common configuration for very-high-volume embedded systems is the system on a
chip, an application-specific integrated circuit, for which the CPU was purchased as intellectual
property to add to the IC's design. A related common scheme is to use a field-programmable
gate array, and program it with all the logic, including the CPU. Most modern FPGAs are
designed for this purpose.
TOOLS
Like typical computer programmers, embedded system designers use compilers,
assemblers, and debuggers to develop embedded system software. However, they also use a
few tools that are unfamiliar to most programmers.
Software tools can come from several sources:
Software companies that specialize in the embedded market.
Ported from the GNU software development tools.
Sometimes, development tools for a personal computer can be used if the embedded
processor is a close relative to a common PC processor. Embedded system designers also use a
few software tools rarely used by typical computer programmers.
One common tool is an "in-circuit emulator" (ICE) or, in more modern designs, an
embedded debugger. This debugging tool is the fundamental trick used to develop embedded
code. It replaces or plugs into the microprocessor, and provides facilities to quickly load and
debug experimental code in the system. A small pod usually provides the special electronics to
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plug into the system. Often a personal computer with special software attaches to the pod to
provide the debugging interface.
Another common tool is a utility program (often home-grown) to add a checksum or
CRC to a program, so it can check its program data before executing it.
An embedded programmer that develops software fordigital signal processing often has
a math workbench such as MathCad orMathematica to simulate the mathematics.
Less common are utility programs to turn data files into code, so one can include any
kind of data in a program. A few projects use Synchronous programming languages for extra
reliability ordigital signal processing.
DEBUGGING
Debugging is usually performed with an in-circuit emulator, or some type of debugger
that can interrupt the microcontroller's internal microcode. The microcode interrupt lets the
debugger operate in hardware in which only the CPU works. The CPU-based debugger can be
used to test and debug the electronics of the computer from the viewpoint of the CPU. This
feature was pioneered on the PDP-11.
As the complexity of embedded systems grows, higher level tools and operating
systems are migrating into machinery where it makes sense. For example, cell phones, personal
digital assistants and other consumer computers often need significant software that is
purchased or provided by a person other than the manufacturer of the electronics. In these
systems, an open programming environment such as Linux, OSGi or Embedded Java is
required so that the third-party software provider can sell to a large market.
OPERATING SYSTEM
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Embedded systems often have no operating system, or a specialized embedded
operating system (often a real-time operating system), or the programmer is assigned to port
one of these to the new system.
BUILT- IN SELF- TEST
Most embedded systems have some degree or amount of built-in self-test.
There are several basic types.
1. Testing the computer.
2. Test of peripherals.
3. Tests of power.
4. Communication tests.
5. Cabling tests.
6. Rigging tests.
7. Consumables test.
8. Operational test.
9. Safety test.
START UP
All embedded systems have start-up code. Usually it disables interrupts, sets up the
electronics, tests the computer (RAM, CPU and software), and then starts the application code.
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Many embedded systems recover from short-term power failures by restarting (without recent
self-tests). Restart times under a tenth of a second are common.
Many designers have found a few LEDs useful to indicate errors (they help
troubleshooting). A common scheme is to have the electronics turn on all of the LED(s) at reset
(thereby proving that power is applied and the LEDs themselves work), whereupon the
software changes the LED pattern as the Power-On Self Test executes. After that, the software
may blink the LED(s) or set up light patterns during normal operation to indicate program
execution progress or errors. This serves to reassure most technicians/engineers and some
users. An interesting exception is that on electric power meters and other items on the street,
blinking lights are known to attract attention and vandalism.
5.8 COMPONENTS USED
1. Step Down Transformer :(230/12V) 2 No.
2. Diodes :(1N4007) 4 No
3. Capacitors :1000F 1 No, 22pF- 2Nos
4. Regulators :7812 1 No, 7805 1 No
5. Light Emitting Diodes :LED`s 6Nos
6. TEMPERATURE SENSOR :LM-35-1 NOS
7. Driver ICs :ULN 2003 1No
8. PIC microcontroller :16f877A 1 No
9. Relays :Single Pole Single Throw Type 4Nos
10. Crystal Oscillator :4MHz 1Nos
11. Resistors :330 1Nos,10 K- 1 No
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:1 K 4os
12. Loads :4Nos
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CHAPTER-6
RESULTS
RESULT
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The below figure shows the hardware circuit for SCADA system for distributed and
substation automation fitted on a wooden board.
PUT YOUR PROJECT PHOTOS
FIG x
The below figure y shows that the circuit in ON position, it is identified by
PUT YOUR PROJECT PHOTOS
FIG y
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CHAPTER-7
CONCLUSION
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APPLICATIONS
1. Power plants
2. Power station
3. Textile mills
4. In Any kind of factory
CONCLUSION
The System operated successfully. By using the SCADA system we can monitoring and
control the substation.
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CHAPTER-8
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS
Customizing and programming ur pic microcontroller- Myke Predcko
Complete guide to pic microcontroller -e-book
C programming for embedded systems- Kirk Zurell
Teach yourself electronics and electricity- Stan Giblisco
Embedded Microcomputer system-onathan w.Valvano(2000)
Embedded PIC microcontroller- John Peatman
WEB SITIES:
Microchips.com
http://www.mikroelektronika.co.yu/english/product/books/PICbook/0_Uvod.ht
m
how stuff works.com
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APPENDIX-A
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CODING:
#include
void delay();
unsigned int i=0;
signed int count=0;
#define ir1 RB7
#define ir2 RB6
#define dc_for RD7
#define dc_rev RD6
#define light RD5
#define fan RD4
void main()
{
TRISC=0x06;
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TRISD=0x00;
TRISA=0x00;
TRISB=0xFF;
TRISE=0x00;
PORTC=0X00;
PORTD=0X00;
PORTA=0X00;
PORTB=0X00;
PORTE=0X00;
while(1)
{
if(ir1==1)
{
dc_for=1;
count++;
delay();
delay();
delay();
dc_for=0;
delay();
dc_rev=1;
delay();