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Routing in Large Scale Ad Hoc and Sensor Networks
Ten H. Lai
Ohio State University
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Two Approaches
Traditional routing algorithms adapted to ad hoc networks
Geographical routing
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Review of Routing
Next-hop routing Source routing Flooding
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Next-Hop Routing
destination next hop cost
x a 3
y c 5
...
?
X
c
Which neighbor (next hop)?
a
y
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Source Routing
X
Which path?
destination path cost
x (a, b, c)
y
...
bc
a
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Each node periodically broadcasts the link states of its outgoing links to the entire network (by flooding).
As a node receives this information, it updates its view of the network topology and routing table.
Link-State Routing
5
3 4
2
1
3
4
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Distance-Vector Routing
least-cost(A,B) =
min {cost(A,x) + least-cost(x,B):
for all neighbors, x, of A} Neighbors exchange distance vectors
A
Bx
Destination A B C D E F GDistance 0 10 …
C
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Routing in MANETs Every node works as a router
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Challenges
Quick topology changes Scalability
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Two Approaches
Table-driven Like existing Internet routing protocols
On-demand
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Table-Driven Routing Protocols
Also called proactive routing protocolsContinuously evaluate the routesAttempt to maintain consistent, up-to-date routing
informationwhen a route is needed, it is ready immediately
When the network topology changesthe protocol responds by propagating updates
throughout the network to maintain a consistent view
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Also called reactive routing protocols Discover routes when needed by the source
node. Longer delay
On-Demand Routing Protocols
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Early Ad Hoc Routing Protocols
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DSDV: Destination Sequence Distance Vector
“Highly Dynamic Destination-Sequence Distance-Vector Routing (DSDV) for Mobile Computers”
Charles E. Perkins & Pravin Bhagwat Computer Communications Review, 1994 pp. 234-244
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DSDV Overview
DSDV = destination-sequenced distance-vector
Distance-vector routing Each entry is tagged with a sequence
number originated by the destination node.
Destination A B C D E F GDistance 0 10 …
Sequence #
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DSDV Route Advertisement
Each node periodically broadcasts its distance vector. “broadcast” is limited to one hop. sequence numbers
For the sender’s entry: Sender’s new sequence number (typically, +1)
For other entries: originally “stamped” by the destination nodes
Destination A B C D E F GDistance 0 10 …
Sequence #
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DSDV Route Updating Rules
Paths with more recent seq. nos. are always preferred.
least-cost(A,B) =
min {cost(A,x) + least-cost(x,B):
for all neighbors, x, of A}
A
Bx
C
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(Source-Initiated) On-Demand Routing Protocols
DSRAODVABRSSRZRP
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DSR: Dynamic Source Routing
“Dynamic Source Routing in Ad-Hoc Wireless Networks”
D. B. Johnson and D. A. Maltz Mobile Computing, 1996 pp. 153-181
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DSR : Outline
Source Routing On-demand Each host maintains a route cache
containing all routes it has learned. Two major parts:
route discovery route maintenance
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Route Discovery of DSR
To send a packet, a source node first consults its route cache.
If there is an unexpired route, use it. Otherwise, initiate a route discovery.
Route Discovery: Source node launches a ROUTE_REQUEST
by flooding. A ROUTE_REPLY is generated when
the route request reaches the destination an intermediate node has an unexpired route to the
destination
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Stale Route Cache Problem
Definition: A cached route may become stale before it
expires.
x x
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Route Maintenance of DSR
When a node detects a link breakage, it generates a ROUTE_ERROR packet. The packet traverses to the source in the
backward direction. The source removes all contaminated routes,
and if necessary, initiates another ROUTE_REQUEST.
Bx x
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AODV: Ad-Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing
“Ad-hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing”
Charles E Perkins, Elizabeth M Royer Proc. 2nd IEEE Wksp. Mobile Comp. Sys.
and Apps., Feb. 1999.
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AODV : Outline
Next-hop Routing (cf. DSR: source routing)
On-demand Each host maintains a routing table Two major parts:
route discovery (by flooding) route maintenance
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AODV vs. DSR
DSR: Routes are discovered and cached AODV: Next-hop info is stored
“Performance Comparison of Two On-Demand Routing Protocols for Ad Hoc Networks,” Personal Communications, February 2001
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ABR: Associativity-Based Routing
“Associativity-Based Routing for Ad-Hoc Mobile Networks,” C.K. Toh.
ABR considers the stability of a link.called the degree of association stability.measured by the number of beacons received
from the other end of the link.The higher degree of a link’s stability, the
lower mobility of the node at the link’s other end.
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ABR Outline
Route Discovery: Same as DSR except the following. Each ROUTE_REQUEST packet collects the
association stability information along its path to the destination.
The destination node selects the best route in terms of association stability.
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Route Reconstruction: On route error, a node performs a local search
in hope of repairing the path. If the local search fails, a ROUTE_ERROR is
reported to the source.
localsearched zone
source
destination
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SSA: Signal Stability-Based Adaptive Routing
“Signal Stability-Based Adaptive Routing (SSA) for Ad Hoc Wireless Networks”
University of Maryland R. Dube, C. D. Rais, K.-Y. Wang & S. K.
Tripathi IEEE Personal Communications, ‘97
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Basic Idea of SSA
Observation: The ABR only considers the connectivity
stability.
Two more metrics: signal stability:
the strength of signal over a link
location stabilityhow fast a host moves
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ZRP: Zone Routing Protocol
The Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP) for Ad Hoc Networks
Cornell University Z.J. Haas and M.R. Pearlman draft-ietf-manet-zone-zrp-01.txt, 1998
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ZRP Outline
Hybrid of table-driven and on-demand!! Each node is associated with a zone. Within a zone: table-driven (proactive)
routing. Inter-zone: on-demand routing (similar to
DSR).
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Route Discovery
By an operation called “boardercast”: sending the route-request to boarder nodes
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ZRP Example
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Scalability Problem in Large-Scale Network Routing
Internet solution
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Geographic Routing
Make use of location information in routing
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Assumptions
Each node knows of its own location. outdoor positioning device:
GPS: global positioning systemaccuracy: in about 5 to 50 meters
indoor positioning device:Infraredshort-distance radio
The destination’s location is also known. How? (via a location service)
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LAR: Location-Aided Routing
Location-Aided Routing (LAR) in mobile ad hoc networks
Young-Bae Ko and Nitin H. Vaidya Texas A&M University Wireless Networks 6 (2000) 307–321
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Basic Idea of LAR
All packets carry sender’s current location.
This info enables nodes to learn of each other’s location.
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Basic Idea of LAR (cont.) Same as DSR, except that if the destination’s
location is known, the ROUTE_REQ is only flooded over the “route search zone.”
S
D
Route search zone
Expected zone of D
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DREAM
A Distance Routing Effect Algorithm for Mobility (DREAM)
S. Basagni, I. Chlamtac, V.R. Syrotiuk, B.A. Woodward
The University of Texas at Dallas Mobicom’98
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Basic Idea of DREAM
Dissemination of location information: Each node periodically advertises its location
(and movement information) by flooding. This way, nodes have knowledge of one
another’s location.
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Basic Idea of DREAM
Data Packet carries D’s and S’s locations. Forwarded toward only a certain direction.
S
D
Expected zone of D
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GRID Routing
“GRID: A Fully Location-Aware Routing Protocol for Mobile Ad Hoc Networks”
Wen-Hwa Liao, Yu-Chee Tseng, Jang-Ping Sheu
NCTU Telecommunication Systems, 2001.
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Basic Idea of GRID Routing
Partition the physical area into d x d squares called grids.
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Protocol Overview
In each grid, a leader is elected, called gateway.
Responsibility of gateways: forward route discovery packets propagate data packets to neighbor grids maintain routes which passes the grid
Routing is performed in a grid-by-grid manner.
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Route Search Range Options
S
D
q
(c) Fan( )q, r
r
S
D
S
D
(a) Rectangle
(d) Two_Fan( )q, r
(b) Bar(w)
w
S
D
q
qr
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Strength of Grid Routing
x x
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Gateway Election in a Grid
Any “leader election” protocol in distributed computing can be used.
Multiple leaders in a grid are acceptable. Preference in electing a gateway:
near the physical center of the gridlikely to remain in the grid for longer time
once elected, a gateway remains so until leaving the grid
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Taxonomy of Geographic Routing Algorithms
Also called position-based routing Three major components of geographic
routing: Location services (dissemination of location
information)Next topic
Forwarding strategies Recovery schemes
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Forwarding Strategies
Basic greedy methods Directional flooding Geographical source routing Power-aware routing
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Basic greedy methods
Most Forward within Radius (C), 1984 Nearest Forward Progress (A), 1986 Compass Routing (B) , 1999 Random Progress (X), 1984 The above schemes’ 2-hop variants
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Directional Flooding
DREAM (in data packet routing) LAR (in route discovery) GRID (in route discovery)
S
D
q
(c) Fan( )q, r
r
S
D
S
D
(a) Rectangle
(d) Two_Fan( )q, r
(b) Bar(w)
w
S
D
q
qr
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Geographical Source Routing
Source specifies a geographical path Needs an anchor path discovery protocol
Terminode routing GRID
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Terminode Routing
“Self Organized Terminode Routing,” Blazevic, Giordano, Le Boudec Cluster Computing Journal, Vol.5, No.2, April 2002
Remote destinations: Use geographical routing
Local destinations: Use non-geographical, proactive routing
Similar to Zone Routing in this sense
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Terminode Routing
Remote Routing Anchored Geodesic Packet Forwarding Geodesic Packet Forwarding (if no anchored
path known) Friend Assisted Path Discovery
Based on Small World Graphs
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Small World Graphs
Two nodes are connected if they are acquainted
Sparse, small diameter
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Terminode routing
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Power-Aware Routing
“Geographical and Energy Aware Routing: a recursive data dissemination protocol for wireless sensor networks”
Y. Yu, R. Govindan, D. Estrin UCLA
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Recovery Schemes
With any of the above forwarding strategies, packets may get stuck (hitting a hole).
A recovery scheme is invoked to get around the hole. Initiate a route discovery GPSR (enter the perimeter mode)
S
D
Stuck, initiating a recovery procedure
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GPSR
“GPSR: Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing for Wireless Networks”
Brad Karp, H.T. Kung Harvard University MobiCom 2000 Two modes:
Greedy (for regular forwarding) Perimeter (for recovery)
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Perimeter Mode of GPSR
Suppose nodes x and D are connected by a planar graph.
The graph divides the plane into faces. Line xD crosses one or more faces.
D
x
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Planar Graphs
Graphs without crossing edges.
PlanarNot
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Planar Subgraph
G: communication graph Relative neighborhood graph (RNG):
Subgraph of G Keep edge (u, v) iff there are no nodes in the
overlapped area.
RNG is planar
u v
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Evolution
Distance Vector, Link State Proactive On demand Hybrid (zone routing) Geographical routing
Location Service Location-based Forwarding Recovery
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Next?
Location service Geographical routing without location
services Geocasting:
sending a message to every node within a region.
Geocast region
Geocast group