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Research Implementation
Lecture 1: Introduction and Overview Carl Thompson
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Aims of the Module
Theoretical Concepts (knowledge, information, change
management) Organisation of concepts/models (information
seeking, organisational complexity) Practical
Reflection on change & thinking differently about strategic approaches to change
Techniques and skills – SWOT, force field
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What Do We Mean by Utilisation?What Do We Mean by Utilisation?
UtilisationInstrumentalConceptual Symbolic
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Information Vs Knowledge Vs Data
“Information usually seen as the precondition of debate, is better understood as its by-product. When we get into arguments that focus and engage our attention, we become avid seekers of relevant information. Otherwise we take in information passively – if we take it in at all.”
Lasch 1995 p162.
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Hierarchy…
Data
Information
Knowledge
Meaning
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Shannon’s Mathematical Theory of Communication (‘Information Theory’)
source transmitter receiver destination
noise
message signal sent signal received
message
Shannon & Weaver 1949
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Knowledge
Knowledge as information that is sifted, organised and understood. Information acquired by being told. Knowledge acquired by thinking – internal
and cannot be received it must be created (Hayes 1993).
Information implies transfer. Knowledge is a state (knowing). Knowledge = actionable understanding.
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Policy Making Models
How policy is made Rationality (and its bounded ‘real
world’ alternative)Herbert Simon (1957)
Incrementalism Charles Linblom (1959)
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(Bounded) Rationality
Decide on the values to guide the policy
Decide on the goals to be achieved
Search for possible means to achieve goals
Evaluate each set of means and options
Select the ‘best’ option and implement it
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Problems…
Relies on (value and political) consensus with little or no ideological conflict
Discounts ‘competing rationalities Within (elite) group bargaining It is prescriptive rather than descriptive Discounts cognitive limitations of
humans (error, info processing, heuristics)
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Economic Vs. Administrative Man
‘While economic man maximises – selects the best alternative among all those available to him,his cousin, whom we shall call administrative man, satisfices – looks for a course of action thatIs satisfactory or ‘good enough’ Simon 1957, p.198)
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Incrementalism
Decision makers ‘muddle through’. Decision making: Has previous policy as its start point Proceeds through incremental change Involves mutual adjustment and negotiation Excludes options by accident rather than
systematically or deliberately Policies are not cast in stone A ‘good’ decision is agreement rather than
objective meeting Involves trial and error
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Evidence Based Decision Making
Active process. Combining the clinical expertise, patient’s
preferences, and research evidence within the context of available resources.
Research evidence weighted. Forming a clinical question from recognised
information needs. Searching. Appraising. Incorporating evidence into planned action. Evaluating impact.
Prescriptive, information deficit model…
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Information Behaviour Models
Wilson Krikelas Johnson Leckie
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Context of Information
need
Activatingmechanism
Interveningvariable
Activating mechanism
InformationSeeking behaviour
Person-in-contextStress/coping
theorypsychological
Risk/rewardtheory
Passive attention
demographic
Role-related or interpersonal
environmental
Source characteristics
Passive search
Active search Self-efficacy
Ongoing search
Social learningtheory
Information Processing
And use
Wilson’s Information Behaviour Model
Wilson 1999
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Krikelas’ Information Seeking Model
Information gathering Information giving
Need creating event/environment
Needs(deferred)
Needs(immediate)
Source preferenceinternal external
Direct(structured)
observations
memory
Personal files
Direct (interpersonal)
Contact
Recordedliterature
Krikelas
1983
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Johnson’s Information Seeking Model
demographics
beliefs
salience
Direct experience
utilities
characteristics
Actions
Background factors
Personal relevancefactors
ANTECEDENTS INFORMATION CARRIER FACTORS
INFORMATION SEEKING ACTIONS
Johnson
1997
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Leckie et al.
Work roles
Tasks
Characteristics of information needs
Sources of information
Awareness of information
outcomes
Information is
sought
feedback feedback
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Importance of Context for Knowledge Transfer
The environment or setting in which the proposed change is to be implemented (Kitson et al. 1998) Prevailing culture The quality of work relationships
(evidenced by leadership roles) Org approach to routine monitoring of
systems and services (measurement) Implementation = ExCxF
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Myths Surrounding Info for EBP Number One: Only Objective Information Is Valuable
Normatively – possibly
Descriptively - untrue
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Two:more Information Is Better
Problem is making sense of existing information rather than adding to it.
Increasing the flow of info as a route to knowledgeable doers is not the answer.
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Three: Objective Information Can Be Transmitted Out of Context
Nurses reject ‘acontextual’ information sources in favour of context-rich advice
Lack the appraisal skills to inject context into information
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Four: Information Can Only Be Acquired From Formal Sources
Information is ‘differences that makes a difference’ (Bateson 1979)
Differences that made a difference (with the exception of drug-reference material) are informally located
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Five: Relevant Information Exists for Every Need
Nurses don’t recognise (or cannot verbalise) information needs.
Satisficing.
Nurses (like doctors) may acquire [over] confidence quickly (Urquhart 1999).
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Six: Every Information Need Situation Has a Solution
Information seeking = transforming need into workable format
Unfitness for purpose = negative feedback
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Seven: Information Can Always Be Made Accessible
Physical sense = yes
Intellectual/cognitive = no
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Eight: Functional Units of Information Sources Fit the Needs of Individuals
EBN functional units = systems, synopses, syntheses and studies (Haynes 2001)
Nurses functional units = colleague advice, ideas and consultation
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intuition
‘pure’ scientific experiment
Peer aided judgement
System aided judgement
good
Task Structure
poor
+
Time,VisibilityOf process
-
intuition Analysis
(cf. Hammond, Hamm, Dowie 1963-2002)
Nine: time and space ignored
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Ten: Easy Conflict Free Connections Between External Information and Internal Reality
Defensiveness and conflict
We simply do not know!
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