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RESEARCH DESIGN
WHAT?
• DESIGN: A PLAN TO CONDUCT THE RESEARCH, TEST THE HYPOTHESES OR ANSWER THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
WHY?
• RESEARCHER WANTS TO CONTROL THE QUALITY OF THE RESEARCH BY KEEPING CONDITIONS UNIFORM.
• WANTS TO AVOID BIAS AND ENSURE REPLICATION.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
HOW?
• QUESTION OFTEN LEADS TO DESIGN.
• SOME QUESTIONS ARE NOT RESEARCH ABLE.
• WHAT KINDS OF VARIABLES DO NOT LEND THEMSELVES TO INTERVENTIONS OR EXPERIMENTS?
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RESEARCH DESIGN
OTHER FACTORS LEADING TO
DESIGN SELECTION
1. ACCURACY: ALL ASPECTS OF STUDY SYSTEMATICALLY & LOGICALLY FLOW FROM PROBLEM STATEMENT.
2. FEASIBILITY: CAN PROJECT BE DONE? SUBJECTS, DATA, COSTS, TIME, FACILITY & EQUIPMENT, ETHICS & RESEARCHER EXPERIENCE?
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RESEARCH DESIGN
3. CONTROL: HOLD CONDITIONS OF STUDY CONSTANT, ESTABLISH SPECIFIC SAMPLING CRITERIA.
• CONTROL RULES OUT EXTRANEOUS OR MEDIATING VARIABLES: ONES THAT INTERFERE WITH INDEPENDENT VARIABLE, e.g. AGE (MATURATION EFFECT), OTC MEDS IN ANTIBIOTIC STUDY.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
HOW TO CONTROL FOR
MEDIATING VARIABLES
1) HOMOGENOUS SAMPLING - GENERALIZE FINDINGS ONLY TO THIS POPULATION
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RESEARCH DESIGN
HOW TO CONTROL FOR
MEDIATING VARIABLES
2) USE CONSISTENT DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES: COOKBOOK MEASURES, RATER RELIABILITY, EQUIPMENT. ALL CALIBRATED.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
HOW TO CONTROL FOR
MEDIATING VARIABLES
3) MANIPULATE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: CONTROL GROUP HAS NO MANIPULATION, BUT “USUAL CONDITIONS” REMAIN CONSTANT.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
HOW TO CONTROL FOR
MEDIATING VARIABLES
• 4) RANDOMIZATION IN SELECTION OF SUBJECTS AND ALLOCATION OF TREATMENT (INDEPENDENT VARIABLE).
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RESEARCH DESIGN
NON-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
• DO NOT MANIPULATE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE & DO NOT HAVE EITHER AN EXPERIMENTAL OR CONTROL GROUP.
• USUALLY CALLED THE STUDY GROUP.
• DESIGN HAS TO FIT THE QUESTION.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
• MANIPULATE THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE & ALWAYS HAVE A CONTROL AND AN EXPERIMENTAL GROUP.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
ORDER OF RIGOUR OF DESIGNS
1. NON-EXPERIMENTAL
A. EXPLORATORY DESIGN
B. CORRELATIONAL DESIGN
2. QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
3. EXPERIMENTAL
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RESEARCH DESIGN
1. NON-EXPERIMENTAL
A. EXPLORATORY DESIGN
• LITTLE LITERATURE EXISTS. RESEARCHER WANTS TO DESCRIBE OR CATEGORIZE THE PHENOMENA. NO CONTROL OF EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
1. NON-EXPERIMENTAL
B. CORRELATIONAL DESIGN
• MORE LITERATURE EXISTS. RESEARCHER WANTS TO LOOK AT RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TWO VARIABLES. SOME CONTROL OF EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
2. QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
• MANIPULATE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE, BUT OFTEN MISSING CONTROL GROUP OR BASELINE MEASUREMENT.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
4. EXPERIMENTAL
• MANIPULATE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE. RANDOM SELECTION & ALLOCATION (CONTROL GROUP). BASELINE MEASURES. STRICT CONTROLS.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
NONEXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
• USED TO DESCRIBE PHENOMENA. NO MANIPULATION OF INDEPENDENT VARIABLE. EXPLORE RELATIONSHIPS OF DIFFERENCES. CAN LEAD TO MORE RIGOROUS DESIGNS.
• ALSO REQUIRES CLEAR CONCISE PROBLEM STATEMENT.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
1. NON-EXPERIMENTAL
A. DESCRIPTIVE/EXPLORATORY SURVEYS
• INTERESTED IN OPINIONS, ATTITUDES & FACTS. HOW MANY PEOPLE WILL VOTE FOR WHICH PARTY? WHAT SHOULD THE BASIC ENTRY LEVEL PREPARATION OF SOCIAL WORKERS BE?
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RESEARCH DESIGN
A. DESCRIPTIVE/EXPLORATORY SURVEYS
METHODS:
INCLUDE EITHER QUESTIONNAIRE (MAILED, COMPUTER) OR INTERVIEW (PHONE, IN-PERSON).
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RESEARCH DESIGN
PROS OF DESCRIPTIVE/ EXPLORATORY SURVEYS
• LENDS ITSELF TO RANDOM SELECTION & SO ACCURACY CAN BE MEASURED.
• INEXPENSIVE.• CAN GATHER LOT OF INFORMATION.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
CONS OF DESCRIPTIVE EXPLORATORY SURVEYS
• DESCRIPTION OF VARIABLES
• OBTAINS BREATH NOT DEPTH OF INFORMATION. MAY BE EXPENSIVE.
• REQUIRES RESEARCH EXPERTISE IN SAMPLING TECHNIQUES, QUESTIONNAIRE CONSTRUCTION, INTERVIEWING & DATA ANALYSIS.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
2. NON-EXPERIMENTAL
B. CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES
• COLLECT DATA AT ONLY ONE POINT IN TIME. CAN BE DONE ON MORE THAN ONE GROUP. OFTEN A SURVEY.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
PROS OF CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES
• LESS EXPENSIVE
• RESULTS READILY AVAILABLE
• NO MATURATION, MORTALITY THREATS.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
CONS OF CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES
• CAN’T TELL IF INDEPENDENT VARIABLE PRECEDED DEPENDENT VARIABLE.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
1. NON-EXPERIMENTAL
C. LONGITUDINAL STUDY
• DATA FROM SAME GROUP IS COLLECTED AT DIFFERENT POINTS IN TIME. FOLLOW COHORT. E.G. FRAMINGHAM STUDY. CANADA POPULATION HEALTH STUDY.
• CAN BE RETROSPECTIVE. USUALLY IS PROSPECTIVE.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
PROS OF LONGITUDINAL STUDY
• APPROPRIATE WHEN STUDYING CHRONIC DISEASES OR CONDITIONS WITH LATENT ATTRIBUTES.
• EACH SUBJECT ACTS AS OWN CONTROL
• CAN SPOT EARLY TRENDS.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
CONS OF LONGITUDINAL STUDY
• EXPENSIVE
• LOSS TO FOLLOW-UP MORTALITY)
• TESTING EFFECT
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RESEARCH DESIGN
1. NON-EXPERIMENTAL
D. CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES
• COLLECT DATA AT ONLY ONE POINT IN TIME. CAN BE DONE ON MORE THAN ONE GROUP. OFTEN A SURVEY.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
1. NONEXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
E. CORRELATIONAL DESIGN (EX POST FACTO)
• NOT INTERESTED IN TESTING WHETHER ONE VARIABLE CAUSES ANOTHER OR HOW DIFFERENT ONE VARIABLE IS FROM ANOTHER.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
• ASKS: AS ONE VARIABLES VARIES, WHAT HAPPENS TO ANOTHER VARIABLE?
• IN WHAT DIRECTION DOES CHANGE OCCUR? HOW DOES MATERNAL ANXIETY EFFECT CHILDREN’S ANXIETY? DOES MATERNAL ANXIETY RELATE TO OR IN CHILDREN’S ANXIETY?
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RESEARCH DESIGN
PROS OF CORRELATION DESIGNS
• FLEXIBILE WHEN INVESTIGATING COMPLEX RELATIONSHIPS.
• EFFICIENT & ALLOWS COLLECTION OF LARGE AMOUNTS OF DATA.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
CONS OF CORRELATIONAL STUDIES
• NO MANIPULATION
• NO RANDOM SELECTION, DEALS WITH PRE-EXISTING GROUPS.
• NO CAUSALITY.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
1 NON-EXPERIMENTAL
F. COMPARATIVE DESIGN OR CASE CONTROL STUDY
• HYPOTHESIZE ABOUT A RELATIONSHIP & TEST TO SEE IF IT EXISTS. DO NOT RANDOMLY ALLOCATE SUBJECTS TO GROUPS. DO NOT MANIPULATE.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
E. COMPARATIVE DESIGN OR CASE CONTROL STUDY
• FIND SUBJECTS WITH DISEASE. MATCH WITH OTHER SUBJECTS WITHOUT DISEASE. COMPARE EXPOSURE BACK IN TIME.
• USUALLY RETROSPECTIVE.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
PROS OF CASE CONTROL
• EFFICIENT
• HIGH LEVEL OF CONTROL.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
CONS OF CASE CONTROL
• DO NOT RANDOMLY ALLOCATE
• DO NOT MANIPULATE.
• NO CAUSALITY, CAN NOT RULE OUT COMPETING HYPOTHESES.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
COMPARATIVE DESIGN OR CASE CONTROL STUDY
• GROUP A O1
• ---------------------------------------------
• GROUP B O1
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RESEARCH DESIGN
2. QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
• STILL INTERESTED IN CAUSE AND EFFECT; HOWEVER BECAUSE THEY ARE LESS RIGOROUS, THEY ARE PRONE TO BIASES OR THREATS TO INTERNAL VALIDITY.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
2. QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
• ALWAYS HAVE MANIPULATION.
• USUALLY LACKS RANDOM ALLOCATION.
• MAY LACK CONTROL GROUP.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
2. QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
A. NON-EQUIVALENT CONTROL GROUP DESIGN
• NONEQUIVALENT BECAUSE GROUPS WERE NOT FORMED BY RANDOM ALLOCATION. HAS MANIPULATION. CAN HAVE PRETEST AND/OR POST-TEST.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
• OFTEN USED WITH TWO HOSPITAL WARDS WITH PATIENTS WITH SIMILAR DIAGNOSES.
• ONE DOESN’T ABANDON A DESIGN. ONE ANTICIPATES THE THREATS AND PLANS HOW TO ADDRESS THEM.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
• A. NON-EQUIVALENT CONTROL GROUP DESIGN (POST-TEST ONLY )
• GROUP A X1 O1
• -----------------------------
• GROUP B X1 O1
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RESEARCH DESIGN
A. NON-EQUIVALENT CONTROL GROUP DESIGN (PRETEST-POSTTEST)
• GROUP A O1 X O2
• -----------------------------
• GROUP B O1 O2
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RESEARCH DESIGN
A. NON-EQUIVALENT CONTROL GROUP DESIGN
THREATS
• SELECTION (EQUIVALENCE AT BASELINE),
• MATURATION,
• TESTING
• MORTALITY:
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RESEARCH DESIGN
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS:
3. TIME SERIES
NON EQUIVALENT OR NO GROUPS. MEASURE PRE-TEST SEVERAL TIMES THEN DO MANIPULATION. AND DO SEVERAL POST-TESTS
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RESEARCH DESIGN
3. TIME SERIES
GROUP A O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8
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RESEARCH DESIGN
3. TIME SERIES
THREATS
• MATURATION EFFECT: DEPENDENT VARIABLE MAY CHANGE NATURALLY OVER TIME.
• MEASUREMENT: INTERVENTION FADE OVER TIME?
• SELECTION.
• MORTALITY.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
PROS OF QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
• PRACTICAL • FEASIBLE: WHEN YOU CAN’T
ETHICALLY ASSIGN PEOPLE TO NOXIOUS INTERVENTION: CANCER.
• GENERALIZABLE
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RESEARCH DESIGN
CONS OF QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
• LACK OF RIGOR
• INCREASED THREATS TO INTERNAL VALIDITY
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RESEARCH DESIGN
3. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
OFTEN LAY PEOPLE THINK THAT WHEN A STATISTICAL ASSOCIATION IS FOUND, THAT MEANS CAUSALITY. THERE ARE SIGNIFICANTLY MORE BLUED-EYED MURDERERS THAN BROWN-EYED. ALL BLUE EYED PEOPLE KILL?
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RESEARCH DESIGN
3. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS CAUSALITY1. STRENGTH OF ASSOCIATION
2. DOSE-RESPONSE RELATIONSHIP
3. CONSISTENCY OF ASOCIATION
4.TEMPORALLY CORRECT ASSOCIATION
5. SPECIFICITY OF ASSOCIATION
6.COHERENCE WITH EXISTING KNOWLEDGE
1
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RESEARCH DESIGN
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN HAS 3 CHACTERISTICS
• 1) RANDOM ASSIGNMENT (major difference between quasi & experimental),
• 2) CONTROL, AND • 3) MANIPULATION OF INDEPENDENT
VARIABLE.
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RESEARCH DESIGN• 3. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS• i . RANDOM ASSIGNMENT: SUBJECTS
ASSIGNED TO GROUP PURELY ON BASIS OF CHANCE.
• EACH SUBJECT HAS EQUAL OR KNOWN PROBABILITY OF BEING ASSIGNED TO ANY GROUP.
• ESSENTIAL TO ELIMINATE SYSTEMATIC BIAS THAT MAY EFFECT DEPENDENT VARIABLE.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
i . RANDOM ASSIGNMENT: HELPS TO ASSURE THAT INTERVENING VARIABLES ARE EQUALLY DISTRIBUTED AMONG GROUPS, E.G. AGE, PROGNOSIS.
• TO ENSURE THAT RANDOMIZATION HAS OCCURED, YOU ANALYZE CHARACTERISTICS OF TWO GROUPS AND REPORT THE FINDINGS.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
3. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
i . RANDOM ASSIGNMENT
HOW IS RANDOM SELECTION DIFFERENT FROM RANDOM ASSIGNMENT?
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RESEARCH DESIGN
3. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
ii. CONTROL
MANIPULATING INDEPENDENT VARIABLE, ADHERING TO PROTOCOLS, AND USING COMPARISON GROUPS.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
3. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
iii. MANIPULATION
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE IS THE MANIPULATION. IN HEALTH SCIENCES THIS IS OFTEN AN EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
• ANTECEDENT VARIABLE: OCCURS BEFORE STUDY BUT MAY EFFECT DEPENDENT VARIABLE, E.G. SES, GENDER, RACE.
• INTERVENING VARIABLE: OCCURS DURING STUDY & MIGHT EFFECT DEPENDENT VARIABLE. E.G. PROVINCIAL PSYCHIATRIC HOSPITAL CLOSURES.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
1. TRUE EXPERIMENT (RANDOMIZED CLINICAL/CONTROL TRIAL RCT).
• SUBJECTS RANDOMLY ASSIGNED TO EXPERIMENTAL/CONTROL GROUP. MAY HAVE PRE-TEST , BUT DEFINITELY HAVE POST-TEST MEASURES.
• WHY A CONTROL GROUP? HOW DO YOU KNOW GROUPS ARE THE SAME?
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RESEARCH DESIGN
RANDOMIZED CLINICAL TRIAL
• WHY HAVE A PRE-TEST?
• WHY HAVE A POST-TEST?
• WHY RANDOMLY ASSIGN?
• HOW BIG A PROBLEM IS IT IF PATIENTS ARE NOT RANDOMLY SELECTED?
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RESEARCH DESIGN
3. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
ii. SOLOMON FOUR GROUP DESIGN
• BECAUSE YOU WANT TO PRE-TEST & POST-TEST WITH SAME INSTRUMENT IN SHORT PERIOD OF TIME, TESTING EFFECTS ARE AN INTERNAL VALIDITY THREAT. TO OVERCOME THIS, USE A SOLOMON FOUR GROUP DESIGN.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
3. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
ii. SOLOMON FOUR GROUP DESIGN
• RANDOMLY ASSIGN TO 4 GROUPS, ONLY GIVE PRE-TEST TO TWO GROUPS, GIVE POST-TEST TO ALL. WHAT DOES THIS ALLOW YOU TO SAY?
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RESEARCH DESIGN
3. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
ii. SOLOMON FOUR GROUP DESIGN
GROUP A R O1 X O2
GROUP B R O1 X O2
GROUP C R X O2
GROUP D R X O2
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RESEARCH DESIGN
• 3. POSTTEST ONLY CONTROL GROUP DESIGN:
• NO PRE-TEST.
• NEED TO ENSURE THAT GROUPS ARE SIMILAR.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
PROS OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
TEST CAUSE-EFFECT.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
CONS OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
• NEED TO KNOW WHICH VARIABLES MAY BE IMPORTANT IN PREDICTING OUTCOMES (DEPENDENT VARIABLE). HEALTH SCIENCES OFTEN DON’T; KNOWLEDGE IS AT EARLIER STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
• IN HEALTH SCIENCES, SOME INTERVENTIONS DO NOT ETHICALLY LEND THEMSELVES TO RANDOMIZATION. CAN’T FORCED PEOPLE TO PARTICIPATE (RANDOM SELECTION). WHAT WOULD BE EXAMPLES OF THIS?
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RESEARCH DESIGN
NONEQUIVALENT CONTROL GROUP DESIGN (POST-TEST ONLY )
• GROUP A X O
• ---------------------------------
• GROUP B X 0