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Research Design
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Depicting Validity (clusters around bull’s-eye) and Reliability (consistent, tight clustering)
Valid but unreliable
Valid and reliable
Invalid but reliable
Based on Babbie (1998)
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Point of Focus
Unit of Analysis Point of FocusCharacteristic Orientation Action
Individual Gender, age, sex, highest educational qualification, marital status, disability, height, region of origin
attitudes, values, beliefs, norms, prejudices, personality traits,
purchase, sell, make decision, go on strike, participate
Social group size, structure, location, aggregated description of members
policy, strategy, rules, regulations, goals; aggregated orientations of their members
merge, invest, contribute, pray, sponsor
Social artefact (physical)
size, weight, colour, speed; characteristics of people associated with them
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Pace, drill, grind, weigh, project etc.
Social artefact (interaction)
where, when, how, why, what people involved
political or non-political
succeed, fail,