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Invited Paper
Geocaching: Form, Function, and Opportunity byIngridE .SchneiderandDeborahJ .Chavez7
Theroletechnologyplaysinoutdoorrecreationisevolvingandofongoinginterest .Onetechnology-relatedactivityinparticularemergedatthestartofthe21stcentury:geocaching .GeocachinginvolvesusingahandheldGPSdevicetofindhiddencachesinareasbasedoncluespostedontheInternet .Geocaching .com,theprimarysourceforgeocachers,providesinformationandguidelinesforparticipatingintheactivity .In2010,geocachingcelebratedits10thbirthdayheraldedbynearly100,000geocaching .commembersandnearly1,000,000activecachesaroundtheworld .ThecurrentestimateofthepercentofpopulationofpeopleintheUnitedStatesofage16andolderwhoparticipateingeochachingis3 .5percent(basedonsamplingfortheNSREdescribedearlier) .Thisisroughly8millionparticipantsofthisageintheUnitedStatesbasedontheBureauofCensuspopulationestimatefor2008 .Sincethisisanactivitypopularwithyouth,thereobviouslyaremanymoreparticipantsthanthis8million .
Initssimplestform,ageocacheisasmall,waterproofcontainerwithalogbook .Thelogbookcontainsinformationfromthecachehiderandnotesfromitsfinders .Alogbookmightcontaininformationaboutnearbyattractions,coordinatestootherunpublished(notpostedontheInternet)caches,andevenjokes .Thosewhotakeinformationfromthelogbookthenleavesomeinformationtoo,atleastprovidingthedateandtimetheyvisited .Thegeocaching .comWebsitenotesthatgeocachingisdeceptivelyeasy;itisonethingtoseewhereanitemis
cleanbathrooms,andtechnologiessuchassatelliteandcellphonereception .Futuredevelopedforestcamperswilllikelycontinuetodemandthesetypesofamenities .
Developedforestcampersperceivedmanybenefitsrelatedtofamilyfunctioningandidentifiedfamilyfunctioningasanimportantmeaningassociatedwithdevelopedforestcampingexperiences .Qualityfamilyinteractionwasinpartattributedtotheopportunitiescampingaffordedfamiliestohavesome“downtime .”Thisadditionalqualityfamilytimewasusedforunscheduledtimetogetheraswellastoparticipateinorganizedprograms,campfires,andself-guidedtrailsassociatedwiththecampgroundsandnearbyfacilitiesandattractions .
Despiteaplethoraof“indoor”conveniences,campfirescontinuetobeacenterforsocialexperiencesinthecampsitesandwerethecatalystfortheexpressionandsharingofstoriesandeventraditions .Sharingandhearingstoriesaboutcampingwasseenasaparticularlyvaluablecomponentofthesocialinteractionsamongcampers .Managersmaywanttoconsiderwaystoenhancethesetypesofexperiencesthroughsiteconstruction,visitorinterpretation,andorganizedprogramming .Asoneexample,interpretivesitesandtrailscanincorporatemoreelectroniccommunicationstechnologiestohelpattractyoungerparticipants .
Givenwhatwelearnedfromresearchersinvestigatingdevelopedforestcampinginthe1960s,itisapparentthatthetechnologycamperstakewiththemhasevolved,whiletheexperiencesandmeaningshaveremainedlargelythesame .Peoplecontinuetolooktodevelopedcampingasawaytocomfortablycontactnatureandtosatisfyimportanthumanneedsforpersonalrestorationandsocialbonding .Themotivationsthatledcamperstoescapeandtotravelinsocialgroupstolesspopulatedareasfortherestorativeeffectsofacampingtriparestillverymuchpresent .Coupledwithmeaningslikeemotionalattachmentstospecialcampingplaces,thestrengtheningofsocialfamilyrelationshipsthroughmemoriesandstories,andtheenhancementofageneralappreciationofnature,developedforestcampingcontinuestoplayanimportantrolewithinthelargercontextofoutdoorrecreationexperiences .
End Invited Paper
Ingrid E. Schneider Deborah J. Chavez
7IngridE .Schneider,Ph .D .,Professor,ForestResources,UniversityofMinnesota,St .Paul,MN;DeborahJ .Chavez,Ph .D .,SupervisoryResearchSocialScientist,USDAForestService,Riverside,CA .
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purposeofthisprojectwastoprofilegeocachersandtheiractivity .Notably,thesamplesreportedaresmallandnotrepresentativeofallgeocachersacrosstheUnitedStates .However,manyoftheissuesidentifiedinthesestudiescanhelpinbetterunderstandingthisgrowingusergroupandtheirimpactonpubliclands .
Methods
Tofindoutmoreaboutgeocachers,anelectronicallyadministeredsurveywasdevelopedanddisseminatedtogeocachersinMinnesota(MN)andMichigan(MI)in2003and2004,respectively .PotentialrespondentsweregeocachersdrawnfromtheappropriateStateGeocachingAssociation(n=235inMNandn=480inMI) .DuetothefewMinnesotaassociationmembersatthattime,thatlistwassupplementedbycacherswhofoundacacheinthesevencountymetropolitanMinnesotaarea,aswaslistedonlineatwww .geocaching .com .
Aquestionnairewasdesigned,pre-tested,andelectronicallyimplementedviaZoomerang©usingamodifiedDillman(2000)technique .Thequestionnaireaddressedexperiencewithgeocaching,preferencesforgeocachingexperiences,environmentallyappropriatebehaviors,anddemographics .Demographicsincludedage,gender,income,andeducationlevel .
Morethan50percentofgeocachersrespondedtothequestionnaires(MN62percentresponserate,MI52percentresponserate) .Descriptiveanalysisprovidedmeans,standarddeviations,andfrequencies .
Findings
Therespondentsrangedinagefrom18to70years,withameanagenear40(39yearsinMN,43yearsinMI) .Thevastmajorityofsurveyrespondentsweremale(85 .6percentinMN,72percentinMI)andWhite(96 .1percentinMN,97percentinMI),highlyeducated(47 .7percentcollegedegree,14 .4percentadvanceddegreeinMN,39percentcollegedegree,16percentadvanceddegreeinMI),andreportedanincome>$75,000inMNand>$50,000inMI .
Atthetimeofthesurvey,respondentsmostfrequentlyindicatedtheyhadparticipatedingeocachingfor1to2years .Respondentsweretypicallywithmembersoftheirimmediatefamilywhengeocaching(48 .1percentinMN,52 .8percentinMI)oralone(24 .8percentinMN,20 .8percentinMI) .Themajorityofrespondentsindicatedtheyalwaysfoundcaches(66 .9percentinMN,66 .3percentinMI) .Almosthalfhadhiddenatleastonecache(48percent
ontheGPSunit,butitisadifferentstorytogetthere .Afterfindingthecache,participantsareaskedtoplaceitbackwhereandhowtheyfoundit .Afterreturninghome,thecachefinderpostsanemailtothecacheownerviageocache .comtoletthemknowthecachewasfoundandcommentsontheconditionofthecache .Appropriatelyplacedandwell-maintainedcachesarerecommendedbywww .geocaching .com .
Withemergentactivitiescomenewchallengesandopportunitiesforlandmanagersandplanners,e .g .,off-trailtravel,disturbednaturalareas,abandonedproperty,andmorevisitors .Althoughgeocachinghasexistedforadecade,fewempiricalstudiesofgeocachersexist(Chavezandothers2004,O’Hara2008) .Assuch,littleisknownaboutthisusergroup,theirbehaviors,andpreferences .Thus,the
Example of cache contents. (USDA Forest Service file photo)
Example of a micro (small) cache. (USDA Forest Service file photo)
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Recreation Participation Trends (National and Regional)
togetoutandwalk,aswellastopushthemselvesphysicallytofindthecache .GiventheobesityepidemicintheUnitedStatesandemphasisonphysicalfitnessbygovernmentandnon-governmentorganizations,geocachingparticipants’motivationforexerciseisverypromising .Participants’physicalhealthchanges,ifany,andtherealizedhealthbenefitswouldbeofinterestinfutureresearch .
Communicationandprogrammingimplicationsareevidentwiththisactivity .First,electroniccommunicationisalmostmandatorywithgeocachers,giventheinternetdependencyforcachecoordinates .Whiletypicalcommunicationmethodsofonsitesignsandbrochuresmaybeofuse,immediateandreal-timemessagescanbedeliveredonmanagementWebsites,throughwww .geocaching .com,andalocalgeocachingorganizationWebsiteifoneexists .Theuseofcachesthemselvesforinformationoreducationmaybeofinterest .Forexample,theuseoftheRegisterofBigTrees(whicharemaintainedbypublicforestryagenciesdescribingthelocationofthelargestspecimensofvarioustreespecies)ascachesmayimprovepeople’sunderstandingandappreciationofthetrees(Wright2003) .Researchonoptimizingmessaginganddeliverywillbeessentialasthis,andother,technologically-drivenactivitiesevolve .Second,giventhemaledominanceoftheactivity,single-sexprogrammingcouldprovideopportunitiestoovercomeconstraintsrelatedtotechnologyaswellastheoutdoorsforwomen .
Asgeocachingappearstobeafamilyactivity,socialgroupresearchisofinterest .Researchdocumentsthatfamilyleisureandrecreationenhancesfamilysatisfaction(Orthner1975,1976)aswellascouplesatisfaction(HolmanandEpperson1984;HolmanandJacquart1988) .However,theleisureexperiencewithingroupsvariesamonggroupmembersbyageandfamilyrole(Martinsonandothers2002) .Thus,understandingifandhowleisureisexperiencedwithingeocachingfamilygroupsisofinterest .O’Hara(2008)positivelynotestheflexibilityofgeocachingforparticipationandinclusivitytocreateapositivesocialenvironment,regardlessofgroup .Similarly,understandingifandhowtechnology-basedgroupleisureisexperiencedisofinterest .Theintegrationoftechnologymaydramaticallychangetheoutdoorrecreationexperience .GPSusecouldcrossovergenerationaldividesassociatedwithtechnologyandenhancefamilyopportunitiesintheoutdoors .Also,asgeocachingbringsdecisionsregardingdirections,technology,aswellashand-heldcontrols,theopportunityformaritalandfamilyconflictpresentsitself(Imber-Black2001) .Assuch,exploringtheactualeffectofgeocachingexperiencesonfamilycohesionandgroupdynamicswouldbeenlightening .Beyondthefamily,thesocializationandpatternsofthegeocachinge-communitydeservesattention
inMN,55percentinMI) .
ThemajorityofrespondentsinbothStatesagreedonthemostimportantmotivationsforgeocachingandthatitincreasedtheirvisitationtoparks .Atleast80percentofrespondentsinbothStatesagreedthatimportantmotivationsforgeocachingweretoexperiencenature,getawayfromtheusualdemandsoflife,getphysicalexercise,andtesttheirskills .Morethan95percentofrespondentsinbothStatesagreedorstronglyagreedthatgeocachinghadincreasedtheirnumberofvisitstoparksandrecreationareas .
Regardingenvironmentallyresponsiblebehavior,thevastmajorityofgeocachersinbothStates(85percent)concurredthatitwasimportanttopackouteverythingtheybroughtin,removedogfeces,andcontrolpets .However,alowernumberofcachers(65percent)identifiedthatitwasimportanttostayontrails .
Implications for the Future
ResultsfromtheelectronicallyadministeredquestionnaireindicatethatMidwesterngeocachingparticipantsaresimilartooutdoorrecreationistsinotheractivitygroups,althoughmoremaledominated(Cordellandothers1999) .Theseresultsarealsocomparabletothecomputergamingarea,wheremaleshavedominatedastechnologyemerges(BryceandRutter2003) .Ifthegenderdividecontinuesingeocaching,itwillbeinterestingtofollowandcomparewithInternetandcomputergamingparticipationwhere,astheinnovationdiffuses,thefemalepresencehasgrown(SchumacherandMorahan-Martin2001) .
Amongtheserespondents,geocachinghasledtoanincreaseduseofpubliclands .Knowingmoreabouttheincreaseinvisitationintermsofnumberofvisitsordurationwouldbemeaningful .Furtherinformationonthecachingexperienceswouldalsobehelpful,suchasbetterunderstandingtheimportanceofthehunt,factorsinfluencingpositiveexperiences,anddurationofexperiences .Similarlyofinterestisdeterminingwhatpercentofgeocachersarenewoutdoorrecreationists,andwhethernewuseoftechnologyintheoutdoorsmayresultinvisitorconflicts .Further,thefactthatgeocacherstypicallygoofftrailatsomepointmayresultinnegativefeelingstowardthem .Subsequently,theimpactofthisnewexperienceopportunityonvisitorconflictlevelsdeservesattention .
Motivationsforgeocachingaresimilartootheroutdoorrecreationactivities,andholdpromiseforphysicalactivityopportunities .O’Hara’s(2008)interviewswithEnglishgeocachersindicatedthatthisactivitymotivatedrespondents
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HvenegaardandManaloor2007,RomeroandStangel1996) .
Methods
Thispaperreviewsthegrowth,economicimpacts,andconservationorientationofwildlifefestivals .Datawereobtainedfromacomprehensiveliteraturereview,analysisofInternetsites,andpersonalparticipationinsomestudies(e .g .,HvenegaardandManaloor2007) .
Results
Recently,wildlifefestivalshavegrownrapidlyinnumber .InNorthAmerica,from1992to2002,thenumberofknownfestivalsgrewfrom10to240(Decrayandothers1998,DiGregorio2002,Lawton2009) .InCanada,over80wildlifefestivalswereofferedin2009 .Wildlifefestivaltouristsaregenerallyolder,moreeducated,andmoreaffluentthanthegeneralpopulation(Lawton2009) .
Table4 .14summarizestheexpendituresgeneratedbyvisitorswithinagivenlocalareaofseveralNorthAmericanwildlifefestivals .Whileformaleconomicimpactstudiesshouldincludeonlynewspendinginalocalareabynon-residents(seeKimandothers(1998),andChamblissandothers(2009)forgoodmodels),anumberofthestudiesuseddataandmethodsinconsistentwiththisstandard .
Regardless,totallocalexpendituresperfestivalrangedfromabout$10,000tomorethan$1millionUSD .Averageexpendituresperpersonpertriprangedfrom$8to$761USD .Significantdriversoflocaleconomicimpactincludethenumberofparticipants,needtostayovernight,lengthofstay,affluenceofparticipants,typesofactivities,andabilityoflocalcommunitiestomeetvisitorneeds(HvenegaardandManaloor2004) .
Afewstudieshaveexpandedeconomicanalyses .Rockport,TexashoststheHummer/BirdCelebrationeachyearinSeptember .The4,500festivalvisitorsspendanaverageof$383 .70USDperperson,foratotalof$1,276,548USDinthelocalcounty(Kimandothers1998) .Ofvisitors,71percentwerenon-residents(spending$344 .94USDperperson)and29percentwereresidents(spending$133 .69USDperperson) .Usingaregionalinput-outputmodel,Kimandothers(1998)estimatedatotaleconomicmultiplier(thenumberoftimesthatmoneyisspentoveragaininthelocalarea)of2 .28 .Thus,thecountyreceivedanadditional$144,638USDinindirectexpenditures(businesses
(ScottandJohnson2003) .
Ourresearchindicatesthatgeocachingtakesseveralforms,islinkedtotechnology(e .g .,Internet,GPS),isofgrowinginterest,getspeopleoutdoorsandactive,andhasthepotentialtochangehowlandsareusedbymembersoftherecreatingpublic .Assuch,geocachingprovideschallengesandopportunitiestothosemanaginglandsthegeocachersuse .Anumberofresearchopportunitiessimilarlyexisttobetterunderstandtheactivity,thegeocachers,andofferadvicetotheresourcemanagerswhoprovidethelandsforthistechnologydependentactivity .
End Invited Paper
Invited Paper
Wildlife Festivals in North America: Growth and Economic Importance byGlenT .Hvenegaard8
Introduction
Festivalsareannualpubliccelebrationsoflocalfeaturesofinterestlastingashorttime(Getz1997) .Wildlifefestivalscanfocusonallwildlifeoronparticulargroupsorspecies(e .g .,birds,mammals,fish,andinvertebrates) .Festivalsattractmostlylocalandregionalvisitors,arefacilitatedbyvolunteers,andofferavarietyofsocial,recreational,andeducationalactivities .Organizershostwildlifefestivalsforanumberofreasonsusuallyincludingenhancementofacommunity’simage,generationofeconomicimpacts,providingrecreationalopportunities,developingalocalsenseofcommunity,andhelpingconservewildlife(Polson1993,
Glen T. Hvenegaard
8GlenT .Hvenegaard,ProfessorofEnvironmentalStudiesandGeography,UniversityofAlberta’sAugustanaCampus,Camrose,AlbertaT4V2R3Canada .
