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READING PICTURE TO UNDERSTAND CLASS:
SOCIAL CLASS REPRESENTATION IN SEVERAL NEWS
PHOTOS IN KOMPAS
THESIS
Presented to the English Department, Faculty of Letters, Jember University as one of
the requirements to obtain the award of Sarjana Degree in English Studies
INU BASIDJANARDANA
050110101079
JEMBER UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF LETTERS
ENGLISH DEPARMENT
2010
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To:
My parents; Sumiati and Warsito
The undying spirit and love.
Finally, I understand the meaning of freedom, responsibility and respect you gave to
me to be what ever I want to be
Thank you for your courage to be..
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MOTTO
The role of the media forces us to ask what kind of a world
and what kind of a society we want to live in.
Noam Chomsky,Media Control
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DECLARATION
I hereby declare that thesis entitled Reading Picture to Understand Class:
Social Class Representation in Several News Photos in Kompas is an original piece
of my writing. I certainly certify that this thesis is not a plagiarism work; the analysis
and the result described have not been already submitted for any degree or any
publications.
I state my declaration truly without any compulsion.
Jember, February 2010
The Writer
Inu Basidjanardana
050110101079
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APPROVAL SHEET
Approved and received by the Examination Committee, the English
Department, Faculty of Letters, Jember University
Jember, February 2010
Secretary Chairman
Indah Wahyuningsih, S.S Prof. Dr. Suparmin, M.A.196801142000122001 194003111966051001
The Members
1. Drs. Moch. Ilham, M.si. (.)196310231990011001
2. Dra. Supiastutik, M.Pd (.)196605141998011001
3. Drs. Wisasongko, M.A. (.)196204141988031004
Approved by
Dean of Faculty of Letters
Drs. Syamsul Anam, M.A.
195909181988021001
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
All praises are due to Allah SWT, the Lord of universe, the Almighty and the
most Benevolent who gives me blessing, force, and guidance to finish this thesis.
Eventually, I believe that without a mercies, it is impossible to compose this scientific
report used to obtain Sarjana Sastra degree at the Faculty of Letters, Jember
University.
This thesis has been not completed without the involvement and assistance of
many individuals. In this opportunity I would like to reveal my sincere gratitude to:
1. My Almamater, Jember University.2. Drs. Syamsul Anam, M.A., Dean of Faculty of Letters, Jember University;
and Drs. Moch. Ilham, M.Si., the Head of English Department for the
permission to compose this thesis.
3. Drs. Moch. Ilham, M.Si., my first advisor and Dra. Supiastutik, M.Pd., mysecond advisorwho have spent a lot of time in correcting and improving this
thesis. I am really grateful for the cooperative advisory, helpful advices andpatience during the writing of my thesis.
4. All lecturers of English Department who have given the advantageous andvaluable knowledge during my study at Faculty of Letters, especially for Mas
Ikwan Setiawan, my virtual advisor who lent me Judith Williamsons
Decoding Advertisementto start my thesis.
5. All staffs and the librarian of the Central Library of Jember University for theservice.
6. All my friends in English Department especially the academic year of 2005 forcontinuous support and friendship.
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7. The student of Journalistic School (die Tegalboto schule) UKPKM Tegalbotofor worthy full lesson about life in those crowded room. We are indeed the
young and restless.
8. dr. Dilli Yudhistira my older brotherwho lend me a personal computer andHornbys Oxford Learners Dictionary in the last of my writing.
9. My niece and nephew; Devi Eka Wardani Mega Ningtyas and Dicky FattahDwi Mahardika. Let the sunshine spring upon your faces.
10.My little angels; Melan and Arin.11.Iken Nafikadini, M.Kes., my sisterand Inggit Muhaimin Tamba, my brother
for the endless happiness. May force be with you.
12.My quiet place in this noisy world, Fatati Nur Diana.Thank you for giving space in your beautiful place, it brings round me that
the lifes so good. Thank you for being part of my deepest heart.
13.The peoples who encourage me and help morally to finish this thesis that isforget to be mentioned.
I do realize that nobody is perfect. The mistakes in composing this thesisbelong to my lack of knowledge. I hope this thesis will be useful especially for the
progress of linguistic major in English Department.
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SUMMARY
Reading Picture to Understand Class: Social Class Representation in Several News
Photos in Kompas; 80 pages; Inu Basidjanardana; 050110101079; 2010; English
Department, Faculty of Letters, Jember University.
This thesis entitled Reading Picture to Understand Class: Social ClassRepresentation in Several News Photos in Kompas, analyzes how the social class ofthe reader can be determined through semiotic theory two orders of signification.Here, the focus of study is the news photographs especially the headline photos in the
Kompas that were published in mid of December 2009 until early of January 2010.
The photograph has invited a polysemous reading and various interpretationof meaning. It is necessary to find out how they make sense of these photographs
based on their historical, cultural background. The analysis is based on the theory of
communication and the concept of ideology that affect the behavior in language
toward the presented text.Barthes two orders of signification that is a redefinition of Saussures theory
semiotics, is used to analyze the way in which signs and conventions in the text
interact with the conventions experienced and expected by the user. Furthermore, the
use of Pierces theory of sign is beneficial to help the two orders of signification topredict and catch the messages in the photograph in an effective and comprehensive
way. These semiotics theories also help to interpret the complex ways in which a
sentence is constructed and the way its form determines its meaning. Then, thesegmentation theory especially social class theory is applied to support the two orders
of signification in interpreting the ideological dimension that shapes the ideas of
representation.In Indonesia, the division of social class can be divided into Class A+ (the
upper-upper class), Class A ( the lower-upper class), Class B+ (the upper-middle
class), Class B (middle class), Class C+ (the upper-lower class), and Class C (thelower-lower class). From the discussion, there are two classes that have been
presented from the headline photo ofKompas; upper-middle class and middle class.
Thus, the social class reader ofKompas is from Class B (middle class) until Class B+
(upper-middle class).
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TABLE OF CONTENT
FRONTISPIECE
DEDICATION PAGE ........................................................................................ iiMOTTO ............................................................................................................... iii
DECLARATION ................................................................................................. iv
APPROVAL SHEET .......................................................................................... v
ACKNOWLEDGMENT .................................................................................... viABSTRACT ......................................................................................................... viii
TABLE OF CONTENT ...................................................................................... ix
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................ xii
LIST OF APPENDICES .................................................................................... xiii
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 1
1.1 The Background of the Problem ................................................................... 1
1.2 The Problems to Discuss .............................................................................. 41.3 The Scope of the Study ................................................................................. 5
1.4 The Goals of the Study ................................................................................. 5
1.5 The Significance of the Study ...................................................................... 61.6 The Type of Study ........................................................................................ 6
1.7 The Organization of the Thesis .................................................................... 6
CHAPTER 2
THEORETICAL REVIEW .............................................................................. 7
2.1 Communication ............................................................................................ 7
2.1.1 Mass Media ...................................................................................... 9
2.1.2 Language in Mass Communication .................................................. 112.2 Representation .............................................................................................. 13
2.3 Semiotics and Two Order of Signification ................................................... 15
2.3.1 Denotation ........................................................................................ 21
2.3.2 Connotation ...................................................................................... 22
2.3.3 Myth ................................................................................................. 222.4 Segmentation ................................................................................................ 24
2.4.1 Social Class Theory .......................................................................... 24
2.4.2 Social Behaviors ............................................................................... 26a. Upper Class ..................................................................................... 27
1) The Upper-Upper Class ......................................................... 27
2) The Lower-Upper Class ......................................................... 28
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3) The Upper-Middle Class ....................................................... 28
b. Middle Class ................................................................................... 29
1) The Middle Class ................................................................... 292) The Working Class ................................................................ 29
c. Lower Class ..................................................................................... 30
1) The Upper-Lower Class ......................................................... 302) The Lower-Lower Class ........................................................ 30
2.5 The Ideology ofKompas .............................................................................. 30
CHAPTER 3
METHOD OF RESEARCH .............................................................................. 31
3.1 Semiotic Analysis .......................................................................................... 31
3.2 Type of Research ........................................................................................... 32
3.3 Type of Data .................................................................................................. 333.3.1 The Spread ofKompasReader ........................................................ 34
3.3.2 Social Class in Indonesia .................................................................. 34
3.4 Method of Collecting Data ............................................................................. 34
3.5 Data Analysis ................................................................................................. 35
CHAPTER 4
RESULT AND DISCUSSION .......................................................................... 36
4.1 The Semiotic Interpretation of Data 1 ............................................................ 36
4.1.1 The Type of Sign .............................................................................. 37
4.1.2 The Level of Meaning ...................................................................... 39a. The Denotative Meaning .............................................................. 39
b. The Connotative Meaning ............................................................ 41
c. Myth .............................................................................................. 424.1.3 Social Class Representation ............................................................. 43
4.2 The Semiotic Interpretation of Data 2 ............................................................ 44
4.2.1 The Type of Sign .............................................................................. 464.2.2 The Level of Meaning ...................................................................... 48
a. The Denotative Meaning .............................................................. 48
b. The Connotative Meaning ............................................................ 49
c. Myth .............................................................................................. 51
4.1.3 Social Class Representation ............................................................. 524.3 The Semiotic Interpretation of Data 3 ............................................................ 53
4.3.1 The Type of Sign .............................................................................. 54
4.3.2 The Level of Meaning ...................................................................... 55a. The Denotative Meaning .............................................................. 55
b. The Connotative Meaning ............................................................ 56
c. Myth .............................................................................................. 57
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4.1.3 Social Class Representation ............................................................. 57
4.4 The Semiotic Interpretation of Data 4 ............................................................ 59
4.4.1 The Type of Sign .............................................................................. 614.4.2 The Level of Meaning ...................................................................... 62
a. The Denotative Meaning .............................................................. 62
b. The Connotative Meaning ............................................................ 63c. Myth .............................................................................................. 65
4.1.3 Social Class Representation ............................................................. 65
4.5 The Semiotic Interpretation of Data 5 ............................................................ 67
4.5.1 The Type of Sign .............................................................................. 694.5.2 The Level of Meaning ...................................................................... 70
a. The Denotative Meaning .............................................................. 70
b. The Connotative Meaning ............................................................ 71
c. Myth .............................................................................................. 734.1.3 Social Class Representation ............................................................. 74
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION .................................................................................................. 75
BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................................................................. 78
APPENDICES .................................................................................................... 82
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 Shannon and Weavers Model of Communication ................................ 9
Figure 2.2 Two-Sided Psychological Entities .......................................................... 18
Figure 2.3 The Combination of Sign ...................................................................... 18
Figure 2.4 The Categories of Pierces Sign ............................................................ 19
Figure 2.5 The Two Order of Signification ............................................................ 21
Figure 2.6 Social Standing is Derived and Influence Behavior .............................. 27
Figure 3 The Spread ofKompasReader ................................................................ 36
Figure 4.1Kompasphoto: Tergerus Abrasi .......................................................... 38
Figure 4.2Kompasphoto ....................................................................................... 46
Figure 4.3Kompasphoto ....................................................................................... 55
Figure 4.4Kompasphoto:Pertemuan Parlemen Asia .......................................... 61
Figure 4.5Kompasphoto: Sesaji Kirab Malam 1 Sura ......................................... 69
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LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1. Photo headline (January 13th
2010)
Appendix 2. Kompaslay out cover (January 13th
2010)
Appendix 3. Photo headline (December 30th
2009)
Appendix 4. Kompaslay out cover (December 30th
2009)
Appendix 5. Photo headline (December 10th
2009)
Appendix 6. Kompaslay out cover (December 10th
2009)
Appendix 7. Photo headline (December 9th 2009)
Appendix 8. Kompaslay out cover (December 9th
2009)
Appendix 9. Photo headline (December 17th
2009)
Appendix 10. Kompaslay out cover (December 17th
2009)
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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
This chapter helps to comprehend the discussion of the thesi. The topic being
discussed in this thesis is semiotic analysis in several news photos in Kompas. Then,
from those analyses the segmentation of the media will be found. To actually make it
easily explained, this chapter also needs to present the background of the problem,
the problems to discuss, the scope of the study, the goals of the study, the significance
of study, the methods of the study, and the organization of the thesis. Each of them
will be presented as follows:
1.1The Background of the ProblemCommunication is perhaps the most human of all human activities. It has
appeared as a primary need for people in all over the world. As social beings, they
need others to defence their existence, to survive, to maintain social relationship etc.
Barry describes:Social life is impossible without communication, and the
development of the power to communicate has played a vital role in the evolution of
the societies since the first men banded together (Barry, 1965: 16).
To carry those functions, human beings use language. Barker in the year of
1984 stated, Language is the communication of thoughts and emotions by means of
a structured system of symbol (Barker, 1984: 22). Further, Webster elucidated that
Language is a systemic means of communicating ideas or feelings by the use of
conventionalized signs, sounds, gestures, or marks having understood meaning
(Morse and Mish, 1996). Wardaugh argues the main function of language is human
communication (Wardaugh, 1972: 4). In addition, through language in the form of
words, symbols, gestures, sound patterns and soon, men try the possibility to build
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co-operation. Therefore language is a medium to share knowledge, information, and
experience and thus understand, persuade, convert or control their fellows (Barry,
1965: 16).
As the time changes, the medium of language have been enhanced, extended
and refined. Humans have been seeking new media through which to extend the
possibilities of communications their ability to exceed time and space (A.G Eka
Wenats Wuryanta, quoted in ekawenats.blogspot.com). Newspaper is one of the
results of the advance technological achievements that mediate language. This kind of
media make possible to the reader to interpret at their leisure without a time
limitation, unlike television or radio. This means that the reader can take time to
interpret the codes and therefore give the information more clearly. The function of
language is applied on purpose, not just informing facts but also constructing
meanings, building myths, serving arguments, and creating opinions. It is in
accordance with Reals statement (1989:17) in his Super Media that the media of
communication is the consciousness industry. It means media provides the materials
out of which many people construct their sense of class, of ethnicity and race, of
nationality, of sexuality, of us and them (Kellner, 1995:1).The newspaper is a form of news communication that presents a display of
codes that should serve the reader with information of the world. As a matter of fact,
news is expressed in a newspaper through symbolic and iconic sign. Both forms of
sign stand in a complementary relationship function as transmitter of the message.
The first, appears in the form of article, headline, caption and soon. These symbolic
signs are the major content of news media that give narrative descriptions. The
second, appears in the form of chart, cartoon, diagram, caricature and soon. These
iconic signs function as transparent representations of reality, as conveyors of
affective or emotional appeal, and as complex combinations of symbols put together
to make up rhetorical arguments.
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Photographs are one of rhetorical arguments in the newspaper. They are
containing sign and codes that provide information to the reader. According to Gaines
(2001: no page) the photograph is simultaneously iconic in its resemblance to
something in the world and indexical as the photo-chemical imprint bears witness to
the appearance of the object before the camera at some point in time. Thus, pictures
are more imperative than writing, they impose meaning at one stroke, without
analyzing or diluting it (Barthes, 1983:110). Barthes expressed his view that a news
photograph is an object that has been worked on, chosen, composed, constructed, and
treated according to professional, aesthetic or ideological norms which are so many
factors of connotation.There are many decisions taken by the photographer such as;
focusing, lighting, angle, which produce various representations, and readings, of the
same moment creating different connotations.
A photograph is like a written text in that it is made up of marks on card. It
has a substance comparable to writing, except that it is not articulated as an alphabet
is (Hynes, 1992: 235). According to Barthes, there are three kinds of messages in the
photograph: linguistics message, non-coded iconic message and coded iconic
message (Barthes, 1977: 36). The first is articulated as caption, title etc. The second isliteral, the captured reality. The third is the cultural aspects of the presented image.
Reading the news photograph is changing those messages into verbal text. It means
that the messages are read as how the verbal text is commonly treated.
This thesis will analyze the photograph in the newspaper with semiotics
approach through functioning the two orders of signification. Semiotics is primarily a
mode of analysis that seeks to understand how sign perform or convey meaning in
context. It is an orientation to the analysis of signs and signs about signs (Saussure,
1966:3). Whereas, two orders of signification is a term about levels of meaning. In
these orders, meaning may appears in denotation, connotation and or myth, in which
meaning as being process of negotiation between writer or reader and text where
denotation is the common sense, obvious meaning of a sign. Then connotation is the
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interaction of the sign with the feeling of the user and the values of their culture.
Additionally, myth is a hidden ideological function of signs which seems natural not
historical. Thus, by the analysis, social class of the medias reader will be found.
The object of this thesis is Kompas, the Indonesian newspaper that was
publishing since June 1965. It is the most widely read newspaper in Indonesia
according to A.C Nielsen, the international private bureau of statistics. It has been the
largest national newspaper in Indonesia. In 2004, its daily circulation reached some
530.000 copies, and its Sunday edition is about 610.000 copies. Readership totalled
about two million peoples.
Concerning the importance of the role of the theory of semiotics in the
process of interpretation of news photograph, especially its two orders of
signification; this thesis is going to find out the intended messages and describe the
functions of two orders of signification of the news photograph on the Kompas from
non-linguistics aspect, so that the thesis entitled Reading Picture to Understand
Class: Social Class Representation in Several News Photo in Kompas is
proposed.
1.2The Problem to DiscussThis thesis discusses what the segmentation ofKompas reader. Basically,
segmentation is dividing the consumer into several groups that are differentiated by
their needs, characteristics, or behaviour (Kottler, 1997:235). The basic concept of
this phrase is the identification of portions of the market that are different from one
another. The product produced by the company is not constantly interesting for all
peoples. It is because of the differentiation of the peoples purchasing motives, the
knowledge about the product, and the peoples behaviors (Peter and Olson,
2000:135).
There are three aspects of segmentation based on Kottler (1999:300)
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1. Geographic aspect (including region, the population density, and climate)2. Demographic aspect (containing the age of consumers, sex, race, religion,
social class and their nationality)
3. Psychographic aspect (containing lifestyle and personality of theconsumers)
In this thesis, the aspect that is chosen to discuss is demographic aspect,
specifically for social class. The analysis will be led to several headline photos in
Kompas.
1.3The Scope of the StudyLimitation of discussion is needed in order to get a clear description of the
process and result. The objects of analysis are 5 headline photos in Kompas around
December 2009 until January 2010. The selection of the data based on common
category such as: law, sport, culture, politics, and human life. Then, it will be focused
onKompas at December 9th
(politics),10
th(sport), 17
th(culture), 30
th(law) 2009 and
January 13
th
2010 for human life category.
1.4The Goals of the StudyBased on the problem explained, the goals of the study can be mentioned as
follows:
1. To describe and interpret the existence of the news photographs.2. To describe how the reader can comprehend the news photographs in
Kompas by using the Theory of Semiotics and applying the two orders of
signification.
3. To find the social class ofKompasreader.
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1.5The Significance of the StudyThis study is not only aimed to define the segmentation that can be seen in the
photograph, but also to get readers appreciation to any physical point existed in a
media. This study also can be used for whether students or lecturers who interested in
media and communication studies. Moreover, this analysis also can be implemented
to other kinds of sign. The most significance of this study is to support people
appreciation of media. Further discussion about this subject is also needed to support
next research of interpret photograph using semiotics analysis.
1.6 The Type of StudyThis study will use library research. Library research aims to produce a
critical synopsis of an existing area of research writing. Besides the data and theories
were taken from books, most of them were taken from articles in internet because
there are not enough books available that related to the method of this thesis. Besides
getting information from written text, the writer also made some discussion with
some people who are interesting in media and communication studies, especially innews photograph.
1.7The Organization of the ThesisThis thesis will be divided into five chapters. The first chapter contains an
overview of this study. Second chapter will give a theoretical review. Therefore
readers have a comprehensive understanding of the analysis. Third chapter will
provide model of methodology and data collecting. Fourth chapter is discussion and
result. It contains the analysis of the problem. The last chapter contains conclusion of
this thesis.
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CHAPTER 2. THEORETICAL REVIEW
This chapter gives some theories that take over some features. These
theories expand the understanding about semiotics theory and other theories which is
related to this thesis. The discussion will be started from communication; the usage of
language in mass communication, media and newspaper including its instruments,
especially news photograph. Second subchapter, the discussion will be focused on
semiotics Pierce and Saussure and the two orders of significationas the basic of
the method. Indeed, the Saussurean semiology is used to help the two order of
signification work that was developed by Barthes. Since, the two order of
signification concept is principally derived from Saussurean theory of sign. Then, the
Piercean semiotics is used to interpret the signifierof the photograph, in order to look
up the social class of reader.
A review on segmentation and social class are placed in the third subchapteras a combining formalist analysis to show how socio-economical meaning convey the
ideological dimension of text. Finally, the history ofKompas is positioned in the last
subchapter.
2.1 Communication
Communication is one of human activities that everyone recognizes as talking
to one another, spreading information, our hair style, and or literary criticism: the list
is endless (Fiske, 1990: 1). The boundaries of its field have been unclear from the
beginnings. It is in concurrence with Frank E.X Dance in the preface of his book
(1967). He stated that it is impossible to cover all area of this science because of the
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breadth of interest in the field of communication (Dance, 1967: no pages). As these
widely definition, John Fiske then briefly defined communication is social
interaction through messages (1990: 2).
The simple route of communication can be seen in the scheme below (cited in
Fiske, 1990:6):
Shannon and Weaver s model of communicati on
Sender Message Channel Recei ver Destination
Noise
figures 2.1
That basic model of communication presents it as a simple linear process. The
sender is seen as the decision maker; that is, the sender decides which message to
send, or rather selects one out of a set of possible messages. This selected message is
then changed by the transmitter into a signal which is sent through the channel to the
receiver. For a telephone, the channel is a wire, the signal is an electrical current in it,
and the transmitter and receiver are the telephone handsets. In conversation, my
mouth is the transmitter, the signal is the sound waves which pass through the
channel of the air, and your ear is the receiver. And destination is the goal of
communication.
Furthermore, communication can be divided into 4 types; personal
communication, group communication, organizational communication, and mass
communication (Cangara, 2008: no pages). Each type has difference range of the
effect occured. Personal communication occurs narrower than other. It is because the
process of acquiring data is only appeared in human mind. In the other hand, the
effect of mass communication reaches the widest area (Gerbner cited in Dance,
1967:42).
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Mass communication define as a process whereby mass-produced message
are transmitted to large, anonymous, and heterogeneous masses of receivers (cited in
Nurudin, 2007:12). Wright in Dance (1967) specificly describes:
This new form can be distinguished from older types by the following majorcharacteristic: it is directed toward relatively large, heterogeneous, and
anonymous audiences; messages are transmitted publicly, often-times to reachmost audience member simultaneously, and are transients in character; the
communicator tends to be, or to operate within, a complex organization that
may involve great expense. (1967:286)
The definition above elucidated clearly that, beside it covers wide area of
receiver, in mass communication the message will be spread, distributed and
transmitted publicly to the large number of audiences who is heterogeneous (come
from various status, class, race, religion, and different characters), and anonymous
(the unrelated affaire between audiences) (Nurudin, 2007:12). Sender controls the
process of producing message in a complex organization, called by media institution.
So, mass communication can also be defined as communication through mass media
which is constructed by modern technology of the society.
2.1.1 Mass Media
The development of technology brings new area of human communication.
Communication takes place not only on the interpersonal level between face-to-face
individuals but also mediated large community through technological devices. The
pervasiveness of the media in our everyday lives cannot be overstated. They devoted
to reaching very large popular audiences and readerships in print, screen, and aural
media (Hartley, 2002:142).
Basically, based on Mass Communication Theory (1987) the functions of
mass media are transmitting for all kind of knowledge. From the purpose mentioned,
they have taken over role of school, parent, even the religion (McQuail, 1987:97-99).
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As the time change, Kenneth Tucker viewed that the function of media as a site for
ideological struggles in which people actively contest and reinterpret the meaning
that they receive from this institution. Through mass media, the rulings groups
attempt to naturalize meaning that serve their interest into common sense of the
society (Tucker, Jr., 1998: 174).
Kellner elucidated that media culture help establish the hegemony of specific
political groups and projects. Media culture produces representations that attempt to
induce consent to certain political positions, getting members of the society to see
specific ideologies as the way things are (Kellner, 1995: 59). Thus he makes the
simple conclusion about the function of media that media culture is maintaining
boundaries and also legitimating the rule of the hegemonic class, race, and gender
forces (1995: 62).
Newspaper is one of printed mass media were published first in 1690 in the
U.K, and now become the most widely read mass media in almost all big cities in the
world (Vivian, 2008:12). This leading position is maybe also supported by the
concept of a bright, flippant narrative style of news reporting, which includes a
strong editorial viewpoint in its coverage. While the content of a newspaper varies, itgenerally consists of a predetermined combination of news, opinion, and
entertainment.
The model of newspaper becomes the favourite of all news media. It is
designed to appear most commonly in daily editions; thus it could provide
background, summarize the news, and add depth and interpretation that most media
cannot give. It presents immediately in its front page the facts and information for its
readers, and based mostly on facts that are fresh and written as it happens (Carr,
2010).
This thesis analyzes the photo headlined ofKompas for understanding the
social class of its reader. Headline is text at the top in the front page of a newspaper,
indicating the nature of the article below it. It summarizes a whole event in a few
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words, and dense noun phrases pack a variety of descriptive facts into a small portion
of a sentence (Aitchison and Lewis, 2003:2). Furthermore, Allan Bell states:
The headlines are in fact telling the story. In some cases they refer to other,sidebar stories separate from the story above which they are placed. By
contrast the modern headline usually derives entirely from the lead sentenceof the story below it and certainly not from any information beyond the body
copy of that story. (cited in Aitchison and Lewis, 2003:10)The role of news photograph in the headline itself is to visualize the event,
applying what had been read and see to accomplish a goal. It also contributes to
literacy, the understanding and interpreting of information (Racine, 2002:6). The
further function of news photo will be described in the next sub chapter that generally
define about language in mass communication.
2.1.2 Language in Mass Communication
Mentioning communication is impossible without mentioning language. Eco
in his A Theory of Semiotics (1976) made implied distinction between language and
communication. According to him, language can exist independently without
communication; in other hand communication can not exist without language (Eco,
1976: 8-9). He described that any flow of information from a source to a destination
is a process of communication, even the passage of a signal from machine to
machine. Its process involve message sending by producer to the audience (cited in
Noth, 1990: 172). In addition, Tubbs and Moss (1994:66) stated in theirHuman
Communicationbook, involves sending messages from one persons nervous
system to anothers with the intention of creating a meaning similar to the one in the
senders mind.
From the statement above, it is not wondered in the opinion that language is
used solely for the communication of factual information between peoples (Lyons,
1977: 50). For Lyons, a British linguist, that statement is not true. He argued that the
function of language is also serves for the establishment and maintenance of social
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relationships and for the expression of our attitudes and personality. Thus, language is
concerned in our cultural pattern and act of social behavior (Sapir, quoted in Hawkes,
1977: 125). In a simple way, it can be recognized that different culture makes
different language. The differences of language play an important, positive role in
signaling information as well as in creating and maintaining the subtle boundaries of
power, status, role, and occupational specialization that make up the fabric of the
social life (Anam, 2004:6).
In mass communication, messages are formally coded, symbolic, or
representational events of some shared significance in a culture, produced for the
purpose of evoking significance (Gerbner cited in Dance, 1967:43). They are coded
in complex symbol system named language. Hawkes (1977: 125) elucidated that
every speech-act includes the transmission of messages through the languages of
gesture, posture, clothing, hairstyle, perfume, accent, social context etc. Over and
above, under and beneath, even at cross-purposes with what words actually say.
That is in accordance with Ferdinand de Saussures statement in the third
chapter of his classical bookCourse in General Linguistics. Saussure affirmed that
language is a system of signs that express ideas and is therefore comparable to asystem of writing, the alphabet of deaf-mutes, symbolic rites, polite formulas,
military signals, etc, but it is the most important of all these system (Saussure,
1966:16). It means that language is not only articulated in form of letters, numbers
etc, but also in the objects of our civilization.
One form of language in newspaper is news photograph. A news photograph
introduces a new set of problems for the analyst. It is iconic, and not arbitrary, so the
paradigms involved are less well specified than they are in a verbal syntagm. It works
metonymically, not metaphorically, and so does not draw attention to the creativity
involved in its construction: it appears more natural (Fiske, 1990: 104). According
to Rolland Barthes in his essay Photographic Message, he states:
The press photograph is a message. Considered overall this message isformed by a source of emission, a channel of transmission and a point of
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reception. The source of emission is the staff of the newspaper, the group of
technicians certain of whom take the photo, some of whom choose, compose
and treat it, while others, finally, give it a title, a caption and a commentary.The point of reception is the public which reads the paper. As for the channel
of transmission, this is the newspaper itself, or, more precisely, a complex of
concurrent messages with the photograph as centre and surrounds constitutedby the text, the title, the caption, the lay-out and, in a more abstract but no less
'informative' way, by the very name of the paper. (cited in Barthes, 1977:15)
The purpose of this iconic sign does not just give the reality illustration but
also as a rhetorical argument about what has been. Further Zelizer argued that
photography functions simultaneously as an integral part of journalism, a facilitator
for achieving certain aims (cited in Fiske, 1990: 80). Then, Emery insisted that
photographs are used just as are words, to inform, persuade, and entertain users of the
mass media (Emery, 1971: 257).
2.2 Representation
Stuart Hall suggests two relevant meaning for the term representation
(1997:16). First, represent something means describe or depict something. It is to call
it up in the mind by description or potrayal or imagination and to place a likeness of it
before us in our mind or in the sense, as for example, in the sentence: This picture
represents the murder of Abel by chain. The second, to represent also means to
symbolize, stand for, to be a specimen of, or to substitute for; as in the sentence: In
Christianity, the cross represents the suffering and crucifixion of christ. Therefore,
representation can be concluded as an essential part of the process in which meaning
is produced and exchanged between members of a culture. It involves the use of
language, of sing and images which stand for or represent things. Representation
connects meaning and language to culture.
At the heart of meaning process in culture, there are two related system of
representation. The first enables us to give meaning to the world by constructing a set
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of correspondences or a chain of equivalences between things (people, object, event,
abstract ide, etc.) and our system of concept, our conceptual maps. The second
depends on constructing a set of correspondences between our conceptual map and a
set of signs, arranged or organized into various languages which stand for or
represent concepts. The relation between thing, concept, and signs lies at the heart of
the production of meaning in language. The process which links these three elements
together is what we call representation (Hall, 1997:19)
Stuart Hall also stated that there aree three approaches how representation of
meaning through language work (1997:24). These approaches are the reflective, the
intentional, and the constructionist or constructivist approaches. In the reflective
approach, meaning is thought to lie in the object, person, idea, or event in the real
world, and languagee functions like a mirror, to reflect the true meaning as it already
exist in the world.
The second approach argues the opposite case. It holds that is speaker, the
author, who imposes his or her unique meaning on the world through language.
Words mean what the author intends they should mean.
Constructionist approach as the last approach recognizes this public, socialcharacter of language. It acknowledges that neither things in themselves nor the
individual users of language can fix meaning in language. According this approach,
we must not confuse the material world, where things and people exist, and the
symbolic practice and processes through which representation, meaning, and
language operated. It is not the material world which conveys meaning; it is the
language system or whatever system we are using to represent our concepts (Hall,
1997:25).
Representation, meaning, and language have an inseparable relation.
Representation is the production of meaning through language (Hall, 1997:18). In
representation, we use signs, organize into language of different kinds, to
communicate meaningfully with others. Language can use sign to symbolize, stand
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for or references object, people and events in the real world. Meaning is produced
within language, in and through various representational systems which, for
convenience, we call language. Meaning is produced by the practice, the work of
representation. It is constructed through signifying.
Representation is simply defined as the process by which member of a culture
use language (and any system which deploys signs, any signifying system) to produce
meaning (Hall, 1997:61). This definition carries important premise that things
including objects, peoples, events, in the worlds do not have in themselves any fixed,
final or true meaning. It is us living in society within human culture who signify and
make things mean.
2.3 Semiotics and Two Orders of Signification
Referring to the Ecos A Theory of Semiotics (1976) and Noths
Handbook of Semiotics (1990), the study of semiotics has reached vast field area
beyond its founding fathers have theorized. The field of semiotics is of course
enormous, ranging from the study of the communicative behavior of animals (zoosemiotics) to the analysis of such signifying systems as human bodily
communication (kinesics and proxemics), olfactory signs (the code of scents),
aesthetic theory, and rhetoric (Hawkes, 1977:101). Roman Jakobson in Hawkes
(1977) suggests an approach to this mass of sign-systems which begin by considering
some general principles:
Every message is made of signs; correspondingly, the science of signstermed semiotic deals with those general principles which underlie the
structure of all signs whatever and with the character of their utilization withinmessages, as well as with the specifics of the various sign systems, and of thediverse messages using those different kinds of signs. (1977:102)
Semiotics or, also called, semiology basically means a science that study
about signs (Noth, 1990:3). There are three main areas of its study; thesign, to which
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it refers, and the user of the sign, as Fiskes statement in Introduction to
Communication Studies (1990):
Semiotics, as we call it, has three main area of study: (1) t he sign itself. Thisconsists of the study of different varieties of signs, of the different ways they
have conveying meaning, and of the way they relate to the people who usethem. For signs are human constructs and can only be understood in terms of
the uses people put them to, (2) the codes or systems into which signs are
organized. This study covers the ways that a variety of codes have developed
in order to meet the needs of a society or culture, or to exploit the channelsof communication available for their transmission, and (3) the culture within
which these codes and signs operate. This is dependent upon the use of these
codes and signs for its own existence and form. (1990: 40)
The terms semiology and semiotics themselves are both used to refer to this
science, the only deference between them being that semiology is preferred by
Europeans, out of deference to Saussures coinage of the term, and semiotics tends to
be preferred by English speakers, out of deference to the American Peirce (Hawkes,
1977:101).
Ferdinand de Saussure, the founder of modern linguistics, states:
A science that studies the life of signs within society is conceivable; it would
be a part of social psychology and consequently of general psychology; I shallcall it semiology (from the Greek se meon sign). Semiology would showwhat constitutes signs, what laws govern them. Since the science does not yet
exist, no one can say what it would be; but it has a right to existence, a place
staked out in advance. Linguistics is only a part of the general science ofsemiology; the laws discovered by semiology will be applicable to linguistics,
and the latter will circumscribe a well-defined area within the mass ofanthropological facts.
(cited in Hawkes, 1977: 100)
While, Charles Sanders Pierce states:
Logic, in its general sense, is, as I believe I have shown only another namefor semiotic, the quasi-necessary, or formal doctrine of signs. By describingthe doctrine as quasi-necessary, or formal, I mean that we observe thecharacters of such signs as we know, and from such an observation, by a
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process which I will not object to naming Abstraction, we are led to
statements, eminently fallible, and therefore in one sense by no means
necessary, as to what must be the characters of all signs used by a scientificintelligence, that is to say by an intelligence capable of learning byexperience.
(cited in Hawkes, 1977: 100)
For Saussure linguistic sign is two-sided psychological entity consisting of
a sound-image and a concept (1966:66). It can be represented by the drawing:
conceptconcept
sound-imagesound-image skull
figures 2.2
It is not symbol corresponds to the referent as it was understood. It means
when we write skull, this word becomes the physical form (sound-image / signifier)
of the sign. And, the signified is the concept that is evoked (the idea of skull). Thus,
the sign is the combination of the signifier and the signified.
signified (concept)
signifier (sound-image)sign
figures 2.3
Ferdinand de Saussure proposed that signs are not autonomous entities; they
derive their meaning only from the place within an articulated system. What
constitutes a linguistic sign is nothing but its difference from other sign. For instance
the signifierman can be understood as not woman, not boy etc (cited in Noth,
1990: 58).
Whereas, Pierce viewed that sign has triadic process called semiosis. It is an
action of the sign, in which the sign has cognitive effect on its interpreter. According
to him sign model consists of a triple connection of sign, thing signified, and
cognition produced in the mind (cited in Noth, 1990: 42). Peirce also identified a
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triangular relationship between the sign, the user, and the external reality as a model
of studying meaning. He writes:
Every sign is determined by its object, either first, by partaking in thecharacter of the object, when I call the sign an icon; secondly, by being really
and in its individual existence connected with the individual object, whenI call the sign an index; thirdly, by more or less approximate certainty that it
will be interpreted as denoting the object in consequence of a habitwhen Icall the sign a symbol.
(cited in Fiske, 1990: 47)
The categories of Piercessign can be drawn as follow:
figures 2.4
Those mean that in an icon the sign is resembles its object in some way: it
looks, sound, feel, taste, smell like it: e.g. a news photograph, a portrait, a cartoon, a
scale-model, sound effect in radio drama, a dubbed film, imitative gestures etc.
In an index, there is a direct link (physically or casually) between a sign and
its object: Both of them are actually connected, the link can be observer or inferred:
e.g. natural signs (smoke, cloud, thunder, footprints, echoes, non-synthetic odors or
flavors), medical symptom (a pain, rash, pulse rate), measuring instruments (weather
cock, thermometer, clock, spirit-level), signals (a knock on a door, a phone ringing),
pointers (a pointing index finger, a directional signpost), a recordings (photograph,
a film, video or television shot, an audio-recorded voice), personal trademark
(handwriting, catchphrase) and indexical words (that, this, here, there).
Then, in a symbol there is no connection or resemblance between sign and
object: a symbol communicates only because people agree that it shall stand for what
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it does, so it is very arbitrary and purely conventional: e.g. language in general,
numbers, morse, traffic lights etc (Chandler, 2000:5).
Furthermore semiotics sees communication as the generation of meaning
in messages whether by the encoder or the decoder. Meaning is not an absolute, static
concept to be found neatly parceled up in the message. Meaning is the result of the
dynamic interaction between sign and interpretant, and object: it is historically
located and may well change with time (Noth, 1990:46).
Meaning cannot be separated from the ideological struggles since its context
is dependent or historical. Since meaning is historical or diachronic, thus it is not only
synchronic as Saussure believed. John Fiske noted that Saussure was interested
primarily in the linguistic system, secondarily in how that system related to reality to
which it referred, and hardly at all in how it related to the reader and his socio-
cultural position. Thus, by his synchronicity, Saussure only examines the complex
ways in which a sentence can be constructed and the way its form determines its
meaning. Therefore, Saussure was less conscious in the fact that the same sentence
may convey different meanings to different people in different situations (Fiske,
1990:85). For instance, pig can be defined as animal, police (for black ghetto), malechauvinist (for feminists) etc. (Hall, 1980: 124-5).
It was Roland Barthes, the French semiotician, who proposed a systemic
model by which the interactive idea of meaning could be analyzed (Fiske, 1990:85).
This theory called the two orders of signification. The two orders of signification is a
term about levels of meaning. Barthes argues that two orders of signification
(mythology) is a part both of Semiology inasmuch as it is a formal science, and
ideology inasmuch as it is an historical science: it studies ideas in form (Barthes,
1983: 111). In these orders, meaning may appear in denotation, connotation and
myth, in which meaning as being process of negotiation between reader and text.
Barthes elucidated that any system of significations comprises a plane of
expression (E) and a plane of content (C) and that signification coincides with
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relation (R) of the two planes: ERC (Barthes, 1983: 89). The primary sign is one of
denotative while the secondary sign is one of connotative semiotics. The denotative is
often called the first order of signification while the connotative as the second order
of signification. It can be abstracted as (Sunardi, 2002:122):
Figures 2.5
The first order of signification is based on the Saussurean theory of sign that
consist of signifier and signified that build a sign (meaning). This relation may be
expressed in Hjemslevian term, expression (E1), content (C1) that coincides with
relation (R1).
The second order of signification is the second semiotic system that used the
Saussurean theory of sign as a base. Thus, the sign of the first order become the
signifierof the second order. In the first order we SIGNIFICATION called as sign,
FORM as signifier, CONCEPT as signified. Therefore, the second order works as the
first order and the second order also use the first orders sign as its FORM or
signifier.
Furthermore, the FORM and CONCEPT of the second order of signification
in themselves also posses its own semiotic system: expression, form and substance.
To simplify, the semiotic system of the FORM may be called in term of E2R2C2and CONCEPT as E3R3C3. Therefore the second order of signification posses two
ways how signs work (called as connotation and myth). Barthes elucidated that
ideology is the form of the signified of connotation, while rhetoric is the form of
connotation (Barthes, 1980:92). Fiske clearly interprets Barthes raw abstraction as
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connotation is the second-order meaning of the signifier, myth is the second order
meaning of the signified (Fiske, 1990: 88).
2.3.1. Denotation
Considering that there is no meaning outside ideology, thus denotation is
another result of a discursive practice. Therefore ideological meaning also presents in
denotation. But confusion may not arise here. Hall argues the distinction of
denotation and connotation is an analytical only (Hall, 1980: 132). Barthes clarified:
Denotation is not the first sense, but it pretends to be. Under this illusion, inthe end, it is nothing but the last connotation (where the reading is at the same
time grounded and enclosed), the superior myth, thanks to which the texts
pretends to return to the nature of language. We must keep denotation,
old vigilant deity, crafty, theatrical, and appointed to represent the collectiveinnocence of language
(Barthes,1974: 9).
Then, Baudrillard affirmed:
Denotation is totally supported by myth of objectivity (whether concerning
the linguistic sign, the analogous photographic or iconic sign, etc.), the directadequacy of a signifier and a precise reality
(quoted in Hall, 1980: 133)
Thus in photography, the denoted meaning is conveyed solely through the
mechanical action of image reproduction: a dog is a dog. Therefore denotation, the
first order of signification is the one on which Saussure worked. It describes the
relationship between the signifier and signified within the sign, and of the sign with
its referent in external reality (Fiske, 1990:85). It means that denotation is literal,
obvious or common sense meaning of a sign. But it does not means denotation is
outside ideology. Stuart Hall clarifies that Indeed we could say that its ideological is
strongly fixed-because it has become so fully universal and natural (Hall,
1980:133). Fiske insists that denotation is what is photographed; connotation is how
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it is photographed (Fiske, 1990:86). Above all denotation is the literal, captured
reality of a photograph.
2.3.2 Connotation
According to Barthes, myth and connotation is generated in the same way in
the second order of signification. Connotation is the second-order meaning of the
signifier (FORM=E2R2C2). Connotation describes the interaction that occurs when
the sign meets the feelings or emotions of the users and the value of their culture
(Fiske, 1990: 85). Barthes argues that the connotation develops on the basis of
denotation whose signifier is a certain treatment of the image and whose signified
whether aesthetic or ideological, refers to certain culture of the society receiving the
message (Barthes, 1977: 17-19).
The difference of connotation and denotation in photography is obvious.
Barthes gives a clear example how denotation and connotation work, as follow:
denotation is mechanical production on film of the object at which the camera is
pointed. Connotation is human part of the process: it is the selection of what toinclude in the frame, of focus, aperture, camera angle, quality of film, and so on
(Fiske, 1990: 86). Then, Barthes declares that:
Connotation, the imposition of second meaning on the photographic message
proper, is realized at the different levels of the production of the photograph
(choice, technical treatment, framing, lay out) and represents, finally, a coding
of thephotographic analogue.
(Barthes, 1977: 20)
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2.3.3 Myth
Hall describes that myth differs from connotation at the moment at which it
attempts to universalize. Myth is connotation which has become dominant-hegemonic
(Hall, 1980: 125). For Fiske myth is the second-order meaning of the signified. Thus
it is the semiotic system of the CONCEPT (E3R3C3).
Barthes argues that myth is dominant ideology of our time. He insists that
myth serve the ideological function of naturalization (Barthes, 1980:130). It means
that myth is not natural, neutral or even necessary. Myth is taken for granted by those
located within the dominant ideology, and legitimized as natural occurrences or
timeless truths- the God eye view. It is presented as common sense, the
unquestioned way of interpreting reality or doing things. Barthes declares:
Myths are nothing but this ceaseless, untiring solicitation, this insidious and
inflexible demand that all men recognize themselves in this image, eternal yet
bearing a date, which was built of them one day as if for all the time.
(Barthes, 1980: 155)
Therefore the naturalization of history by myths, point up the fact that mythsare actually the product of a social class that has achieve dominance by a particular
history: the meanings that its myths circulate must carry this history with them,
but their operation as myths make them try to deny it and present their meanings as
natural, not historical or social. Myths mystify or obscure their origins and thus
their political or social dimension (Fiske, 1990: 89).
Thus myth is hidden ideological, hegemonic function of signs which
seem natural not historical that brings natural world view as something given, taken
for granted or goes without saying. This natural world view may masculinity,
femininity, freedom, individualism, objectivism, rationalism, inequality of human
races, the civilized western, the exotic orient, Englishness, middle class, upper class
and so on.
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2.4 Segmentation
Segmentation is an essential element of marketing in industrialized country
(Wedel and Kamakura, 2000:3). Since it was introduced (1956), segmentation has
become a central concept in both theory and practices. Many definition of
segmentation have been proposed since, but in empirical view the original definition,
which is proposed by W.R Smith, has retained its value.
Smith recognized that segments are directly derived from the heterogeneity of
costumer wants, as his argument in the article Product Differentiation and Market
Segmentation as Alternative Marketing Strategies in Journal of Marketing:
Segmentation involves viewing a heterogeneous market as a number of smaller
markets, in response to differing preferences, attributable to the desires of consumers
for more precise satisfaction of their varying wants. (Wedel and Kamakura, 2000:3).
Different customers have different needs, and it rarely is possible to satisfy all
customers by treating them alike. Therefore, the identification of market segment and
their element is highly dependent on the bases (variable of criteria) and method used
to define them. The choice of different bases may lead to different segments being
revealed.
2.4.1 Social Class Theory
Class is seen as embodying membership of collective groups, foralthough
people can identify as members of classes, this identification seems contextual and of
limited significance, rather than being a major source of their identity and group
belonging (Savage in Bottero, 2004:987). Culturally, class does not appear to be a
self-conscious principle of social identity. Structurally, however, it appears to be
highly pertinent.
For Weber a social class is a group that shares similar life chances, that is,
chances of achieving a socially valued living standard. Life chances are determined
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by ones income and ownership of various types of material property, including the
means of production, but also by the possession of what Weber referred to as status,
that is, social prestige and related cultural attributes, such as educational attainment,
type of occupation, and lifestyle (cited in Parillo, 2008:131). Thus, in the
distributional view classes are nuanced social groupings based on distributions of
numerous economic and cultural attributes that shape life chances, and identified
generally as lower class, middle class, and upper class. Each designation may be
further modified (e.g. lower middle class) or alternatively titled to recognize tradition
or prestige.
Moreover, class is a function of market power rather than ownership or non-
ownership of the means of production (Weber cited in Saunders 1990:23). Seen in
this way people form a class if they share roughly common life chances. They may
enjoy similar life chances because they own substantial property holdings from which
they can earn a profit, but the property market is not the only factor which influences
economic situation. What is also crucial is our position in the labour market. Some
people have particular skills or abilities which enable them to command high wages
when they take their labor to the market and this too will affect their class position.In addition, social-psychological problems of class and mobility are
examined, such as perceptions of low self-worth or uncertainty of social standing. For
example, one may attain the income of a higher class but still be excluded by its
members because the important attributes of lifestyle, taste and speech, do not
automatically follow.
How does a person obtain a social standing? The social standing is a result of
characteristics people posses that others in society desire and hold in high esteem.
The education, occupation, ownership of property, income level, and heritage
(racial/ethnic background, parents status) influence social standing, as shown in
figure below (Hawkins et al, 1998:115).
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Figures 2.6
Social standing ranges from the lower class, those with few or none of the
socioeconomic factors desired by society, to the upper class, who posses many of the
socioeconomic characteristics considered by society as desirable. Individuals with
different social standing tends to have different needs and consumption pattern.
Further about social behaviors will be explained in follow subsub chapter.
2.4.2 Social Behaviors
The study of social stratification is the study of how these different groupings
or strata relate to one another. Usually, it finds that they are related unequally. One
group may own and enjoy more economic resources than another, or it may be held in
higher esteem, or it may be in a position to order other groups around (Saunders,
1990:2-3). In our own society there are poor and wealthy people, there are families of
high birth and families of commoners, and there are politically powerful elites and
relatively powerless groups of people who are expected only to follow commands and
obey orders. The analysis of social stratification is concerned to understand how
inequalities like these arise in the first place, how they are maintained or changed
over time, and the impact which they have on other aspects of social life. In addition,
class is therefore determined not by the group in which you place yourself or the
people you interact with, but rather by these common characteristics (Kerbo,
1996:34).
Sosioekonomic
Factor
Occupation
Education
Ownership
Income
Heritage
Social Standing
Upper ClassMiddle Class
Lower Class
Behaviors
PreferencesPurchases
Consumption
Communication
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Weber in Saunders (1990:22-23) divides the social stratification into three
classes; upper, lower, and middle class. Upper class consists of those who live off
property income and enjoy the privileges of education. The lower class, by contrast,
is negatively privileged on both dimensions. In between these two classes, the
middle class, consists of people who have some property but little education and
people who have little property but can command high wages by virtue of their
education and qualifications (the intelligentsia and specialists).
Moreover, Hawkins et al in their book Consumer Behaviors (1998) break up
Webers class into several classes (1998:117). The upper class is divided into three
groups primarily on differences in occupation and social affiliation. The middle class
is divided into a middle class of average-income white and blue-collar workers living
in better neighborhoods, and a working class of average-income blue-collar workers
who lead a working-class lifestyle. And the lower class divided into two groups ,
one living just above the poverty level and the other visibly poverty-stricken. The
behavior of these designed-groups will be described in more detail in the following
sub-sub-sub chapter.
a. Upper Class
1) The Upper-Upper Class
Members of the upper-upper social class are aristocratic families who make
up the social elite. Members with this level of social status generally are the nucleus
of the best country clubs and sponsors of major charitable events. They provide
leadership and funds for community and civic activities and often serves as trustees
for hospitals, colleges, and civic organizations.
These individuals live in excellent homes, drive luxury automobiles, own
original art, and travel extensively. They generally stay out of the public spotlight
unless it is to enter politics or support a charity or community event.
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2) The Lower-Upper Class
The lower-upper class is often referred to as new rich-the current
generations new successful elite. These families are relatively new in term of upper-
class social status and have not yet been accepted by the upper crust of the
community. In some cases, their income is greater than those of families in the upper-
upper social strata.
Many members of this group continue to live lifestyles similar to those of
upper-middle class. This is particularly true of those who acquired their wealth
relatively slowly through professional accomplishment. These individuals do not try
to emulate or out-do the upper-upper class. Their income generally exceeds the
amount needed to support their lifestyle, and they are a prime market for investment
services of all type.
Other members of this class strive to emulate the established upper-upper
class. Entrepreneurs, sport star, and entertainers who suddenly acquire substantial
wealth often engage in this type behavior. However, they are frequently unable to
join the same exclusive clubs or command the social respect accorded the true blue
bloods.
3) The Upper-Middle Class
This class consists of families who posses neither family status derived from
heritage nor unusual wealth. Their social position is achieved primarily by their
occupation and career orientation. Occupation and education are key aspects of this
social stratum, as it consists of successful professional, independent business people,
and corporate managers. Members of this social class are typically college graduates,
many of whom have professional or graduate degrees.
Upper-middle class individuals tend to be confident and forward looking.
They worry about the ability of their children to have the same lifestyle they enjoy.
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They realize that their success depends on their careers, which in turn depend on
education. As a result, they concerned about their childrens education so much.
Having their children get a sound education from the right schools is very important
to them.
b. Middle Class
1) The Middle Class
The middle class is composed of white-collar workers (office workers, school
teachers, lower-level managers) and high paid blue-collar workers (plumbers, factory
supervisors). Thus, the middle class represent the majority of the white-collar group
and the top of the blue-collar group. The middle-class core typically has some college
though not a degree, a white-collar or a factory supervisor position, and an average
income.
The middle class concern about respectability. They care about their nation.
They care what the neighbors think. They deeply concern about the quality of public
schools, crime, drugs, traditional family values, and their familys financial security.
2) The Working Class
It consists of skilled and semi-skilled factory, service, and sales workers.
Though some households in this social stratum seek advancement, member of this
stratum are more likely to seek security for and protection of what they already have.
They greatly concern about crime, gangs, drugs, and neighborhood deterioration.
They generally cannot afford to move to a different area so their current
neighborhood or schools become unsafe or otherwise undesirable. Immigration rates
concern them as a threat to their job. With modest education and skill levels, the more
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marginal member of this class is in danger of falling into one of the lower classes.
Unfortunately, they often lack the skills and resources to avoid the danger.
c. Lower Class
1) The Upper-Lower Class
The upper-lower class consists of indivuals who are poorly educated, have
very low income, and work as unskilled laborers (janitor, dishwasher). Member of
this class live in marginal housing that is often located in depressed and decayed
neighborhoods. Crime, drugs, and gangs are often close at hand and represent very
real threat.
2) The Lower-Lower Class
The lower-lower class, the poverty class, or the bottom layer, has the lowest
social standing in society. They have very low incomes and minimal education. This
segment of society is often unemployed for long periods of time. Many member ofthis group lack the personal resources in terms of educational background, work
habits, health, and attitude to escape unemployment and poverty without external
assistance.
2.5 The Ideology ofKompas
Kompas were published first at June 28th
1965 in Jakarta, found by P.K
Ojong, Jacob Oetama, and several former journalists ofIntisari magazine. In its
headline on the first edition-after 3 days serially released in test-proof edition- they
reported about the Asia and African Conference that was delayed for 4 months.
Generally, it contained 11 foreign news and 7 domestic news.
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The name that means a device for determining directions was exclusively
given by the Indonesian first president, Soekarno, aim to change their previous name
Bentara Rakyat. Soekarno concluded that the term rakyat (or class in English) had
been part of communist movement. Indeed, the appearance of media could not be
separated from the political constellation at the time.
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CHAPTER 3. METHOD OF RESEARCH
Based on the problem that will be discussed in this thesis, method of research
will be divided into some sub chapters. The first sub chapter is an explanation about
semiotics analysis. Then, the second chapter will contain the type of data that become
the object of analysis. Method of data collecting contains the limitation of data and
the way of data collecting in this thesis. The explanation about kind of analysis will
be described in the forth sub chapter, method of analysis. The last sub chapter is
hypothesis. It is a temporary answer about the problem. It may change according to
the analysis in the forth chapter.
3.1 Semiotic Analysis
Semiotics can be applied to anything which can be seen as signifyingsomething, in other words, to everything which has meaning within a culture
(Chandler, 1994:125). Even within the context of the mass media semiotic analysis
can also be applied to any media texts (including television and radio programmes,
films, cartoons, newspaper and magazine articles, posters and other ads) and to the
practices involved in producing and interpreting such texts. Within the Saussurean
tradition, the task of the semiotician is to look beyond the specific texts or practices to
the systems of functional distinctions operating within them. The primary goal is to
establish the underlying conventions, identifying significant differences and
oppositions in an attempt to model the system of categories, relations (syntagmatic
and paradigmatic), connotations, distinctions and rules of combination employed. For
instance, 'What distinguishes a polite from an impolite greeting, a fashionable from
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an unfashionable garment?' (Culler, 1985:93); the investigation of such practices
involves trying to make explicit what is usually only implicit.
A 'text' (such as a photograph, an animated cartoon or a radio news bulletin) is
in itself a complex sign containing other signs. The initial analytical task is to identify
the signs within the text and the codes within which these signs have meaning (e.g.
'textual codes' such as camerawork or 'social codes' such as body language). Within
these codes it needs to identify paradigm sets (such as shot size: long shot, mid shot,
close up). It also needs to identify the structural relationships between the various
signifiers (syntagms). Finally, it will be discussed the ideological functions of the
signs in the text and of the text as a whole. What sort of reality does the text construct
and how does it do so? How does it seek to naturalize its perspectives? What
assumptions does it make about its readers?
3.2 Type of Research
There are some types of research conducted in this thesis. The first type is
library research. Blaxter et al. stated that library research aims to produce a criticalsynopsis of an existing area of research writing (1997:151). In the library research,
books used as the data sources are very helpful to the elaboration of theoretical
review and problems that will be analyzed (Djajasudarma, 1993:7).
This research also conducts qualitative research. It concerns with collecting
and analyzing information in many forms, mainly non numeric. Qualitative research
tends to focus on exploring, in as much detail as possible, smaller numbers of
instances or examples which are seen as being interesting or illuminating. It aims to
achieve depth rather than breadth (Blaxter et al, 1997:60). This thesis which
conducts semiotic analysis tries to analyze the several headline photos ofKompas and
achieve the appropriate interpretation of them.
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3.3 Type of Data
Basically semiotics can be applied to analyze both qualitative and quantitative
data. In analyzing the effect of mass media, it has to use quantitative data, but in
analyzing the process of facts construction, qualitative data is required.
Quantitative research is used in statistical analysis, in order to find out the
numbers of people that affected by the news. In other hand, the purpose of this study
is to find out facts construction, therefore, the analysis in this thesis will be applied on
qualitative data. Qualitative data is the data based on the research that focuses on
understanding and meaning through verbal narative and description rather than
number. As stated by Sherman and Webb (in Blaxter et al, 1997; 61), Qualitative
research, then, has the aim of understanding experience as nearly as possible as its
participants feel it or live it. William M.K. Trochim (2006) states that major
categories of qualitative data are; in-depth interviews,direct observation andwritten
documents.
In this thesis, the data analyzed are the headline photo ofKompas around
December 2009 and January 2010. The photos choosen are based on several news
categories; legal, sport, culture, politics, and ecology. It is in order to show that thetheory could be applied in any news category. The editions taken are on December
30th
2009 (legal category), December 10th
2009 (sport category), December 17th
2009
(culture), December 9th
2009 (politics), and January 13th
2010 (human life).
Beside the primary data, in this chapter also provide the data about the
circulation of Kompas and the distribution of social class in Indonesia. The
information ofKompascirculation is given to offer the other perspective about the
social status of readers based on the district they lived. Whereas, the figure of
distribution of social class is to make certain the social class of readers.
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3.3.1 The Spread ofKompasReader
No District Circulation Amount
1 Jakarta and surrounding 294.0042 Sumatera 64.852
3 West Java 61.272
4 Central Java 48.584
5 East Java 16.518
6 Borneo 17.910
7 East Indonesia 36.880
8 Other 31.591Figures 3
(Research and DevelopmentLitbang- Kompas, 1999)
3.3.2 Social Class in Indonesia
In Indonesia, abstractly the division of social class can be divided in to six
groups (Kasali, 2005:212).
1. Class A+ (the upper-upper class)2. Class A (upper class)3. Class B+ (the upper-middle class)4. Class B (middle class)5. Class C+ (the upper-lower class)6. Class C (the lower-lower class)
3.4 Methods of Collecting Data
Documentary (bibliography) study is applied in this study as the method of
data collection. Documentary study proceeds by abstracting from each document
(Blaxter et al, 1997:85). The elements that are considered important or relevant must
be collected or set together with the other related data. Documentary study is also a
way of study that is arranged through categorization, classification, verification, and
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discussion (analysis) of written materials related to research problem in which the
source are text, books, newspapers, magazine, and journals,etc. (Nawawi, 1998:85).
The data of this thesis are headline photo ofKompas taken from web sources
(www.epaper.kompas.com). They are collected, classified, and verified according to
problem of the study. Then they will be analyzed and described using the appropriate
theories in order to reveal the representation of social class reader.
3.5 Data Analysis
After collecting the data, they will be analyzed through several steps by