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Radiation oncology
Lecture 15-16
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Early cures. In 1899, in Stockholm, Thor Stenbeck initiated the treatment of a 49-year-old woman's basal-cell carcinoma of the skin of the nose (above), delivering over 100 treatments in the course of 9 months. The patient was living and well 30 years later. Many patients marveled at the experience of receiving radiations.
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Extraordinary follow-up. In November 1896, Leopold Freund in Vienna irradiated a four-year-old girl with an extensive dorsal hairy nevus. Although the immediate
result was a painful moist radioepidermatitis, permanent regression followed. The young woman led a normal life, bearing a healthy son. Photographs taken at 74 years
of age, however, reveal lumbar skin scarring, kyphoses, keratoses, and sequelar osteoporosis.
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Early radium treatment. The painstaking process of extracting minute amounts of radium from tons of ore made the element extraordinarily rare and expensive in these earliest years. The Curies loaned small amounts to various Paris physicians, including Louis Wickham and Paul Desgrais who in 1907 treated this child's erectile angioma using a crossfire technique. Below, early applicators were devised in a number of shapes and
sizes-flat for surface work and cylindrical for intracavitary use.
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1 MeV Metropolitan Vickers Unit, St. Bartholomew's, London, 1937. Dr. Ralph Phillips and physicist George Innes devised this 30' long X-ray tube and 600 kVp generator, with variable field sizes, moving couch, vacuum system, parallel plate monitoring, light field localization, and vertical/rotational capabilities. Others were soon in place in Seattle, New York, and
California.
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First clinical van de Graaff generator, 1933-37. Robert van de Graaff devised a direct current electrostatic generator in 1929. A 2 MeV dedicated radiotherapy
unit installed at Huntington Memorial Hospital in Boston used the van de Graaff and boasted pre-treatment planning, wedge filters, and various orientations. The Royal Marsden unit shown had a turntable and set-up lines, but due to field size
and insufficient output was not clinically practical.
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The physical goal of radiation therapy
From a physics perspective the goal of radiation therapy could be simply stated as
“Deliver a high dose to all parts of the tumor while minimizing the dose to surrounding normal tissue.”
100%
0%
As we will see, this ideal dose distribution is not physically achievable, but we attempt to satisfy it
through two general strategies: brachytherapy and teletherapy.
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Brachytherapy The word is derived from the Greek word brachios meaning short and refers to the therapeutic
use of encapsulated radionuclides within or close to a tumor/target
In brachytherapy radiation sources are placed adjacent to orwithin the target volume. The sources may be implantedpermanently or temporarily. Temporary implants may be performed at high dose rate (HDR, treatment time of minutes) or low dose rate (LDR, treatment time of days). It involves use of nuclear radioactivity. We will not have time to discuss it later in the course. Just few illustrations.
Teletherapy uses the external sourses: photons, electrons, protons, ions.
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The ultrasound guided probe, the needle, and the guide being applied in a treatment procedure for prostate cancer.
Develompent started right after discovery of radiactivity. Hiatus in the middle of the 20th Century due to high risk to practitioner and patient. New technology later in the century, brachytherapy has re-emerged as a leading treatment option in the past three decades
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Below is a sample seed that would be used in a brachytherapy treatment procedure. Its relative size is indicated by the background finger that is holding it.
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In teletherapy an external source at a distance of about one meter from the patient is used to irradiate the tumor. A series of daily fractions, each about 2 Gy, is used. It takes about one minute to deliver the actual treatment, but typically 15 minutes to position the patient
and deliver beams from different directions.
P1
P2
Source
r2 r1
d1
d2 For normal tissue closer to the source, both attenuation and the inverse-square law work against achieving an
acceptable dose distribution. However, the advantages of
using teletherapy are many...
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Advantages of teletherapy
1. Any anatomical site can be treated.2. Large fields (even the whole body!) can be accomodated.
3. Treatment is quick and convenient.4. Usually done as an outpatient procedure.
5. Noninvasive.6. Can be performed on patients who are not well.
7. No significant radiation dose to staff, family members, etc.8. The physical disadvantages can be largely overcome.
Dose distribution from a photon beam
To understand #8 above, we need to understand the dose distribution from an external photon beam. We need to consider:
1. Dose is due mainly to electrons.2. Electrons have finite range.
3. Attenuation of primary photons.4. Inverse square law.
5. Compton scattered photons.
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Simple model for dose near the surface...
Assume each high energy electron is launched in the forward direction and that each has the range shown. The dose in each layer of tissue will be proportional to the number of
electron tracks per unit volume. If there is no substantial attenuation of the photon fluence over this distance we would expect:
D2 = 2D
1, D
3 = 3D
1, D
4 = 4D
1, D
5 = 5D
1, D
6 = 6D
1,
but after this layer (in which we reach an equilibrium in electron fluence), the dose would be approximately constant. But as depth continues to increase the photon fluence will
decrease due to attenuation.
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Build-up region
Approx. exponential attenuation
Depth
Expectations of a naive
model:
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Energy deposition for different photon energies
Skin effect increases with increase of the photon energy
Depth in mm
Here are some example of real depth-dose curves. Our simple model does predict the general nature of these curves, but not the quantitative details.
Depth in cm
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Skin effect - difference between kerma = kinetic energy release in the media, and
absorbed dose.
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Very important conclusion: smaller absorption (smaller μ )
- better the ratio between the dose in the tumor and in the healthy tissue. μ drops with increase of
the photon energy.
Use of high-energy electrons to generate photons - main mechanism is
bremsstrahlung. Electrons stop in a metal target and photons with continuum
distribution over the energies are produced. Average photon energy is about 1/3 of the
electron energy. Need electron beams of the energies up to 25 MeV.
In the case of a tumor deep inside the minimal amount of radiation obtained by the healthy tissue is in the ratio of
the volumes of the body and the tumor, that is >> 1.
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An electron linear accelerator uses microwaves propagating in
a special waveguide to accelerate the electrons. The largest linac
accelerates electrons to 50 GeV, but medical accelerators operate in the 4
- 25 MeV range. As shown in the figure, the electron beam is focused
onto a metal target (usually tungsten). At high energies the
bremsstrahlung beam is forward peaked, so a metal “flattening filter” is
used to produce a more uniform beam. A set of moveable collimators allow the user to define rectangular beams of dimensions from 4 to 40
cm. An ionization chamber measures the radiation output in real time and
is one of the means by which the dose to the patient is controlled
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The Varian Medical Linear Accelerator
Generates high energy X-rays for therapy
Rotates around the patient to deliver radiation from multiple beam angles
Works in special treatment room with 7-ft thick walls
Weighs ~ 18,000 lbs Measures 9 X 15 feet
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Klystron
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Axis of rotation
Axis of rotation
When the beam is not on, a light field is projected onto the patient which is coincident
with the radiation field. This aids in patient setup. Other devices, such as wall-mounted lasers are used in conjunction with marks on
the patient. Note that rotation of the entire accelerator assembly allows a photon
beam to be directed at the patient at any angle without moving the patient. This is
called an isocentric setup.
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Typical teletherapy installation.
Because even the scattered and leakage radiation dose ratesare quite high in the room, only the patient can be present during
the actual irradiation. A specially designed shielded room (orbunker) is needed to protect staff and often the general public.
In a typical bunker for a high energy accelerator the primaryradiation barriers (see above) are about 2 m thick! These roomsare fairly expensive to build. Total cost of room and accelerator
is in the 2 - 4 million dollar range.
Primary barrier
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Fundamental problem: task is to kill most of the tumor cells. However , if it is not close to the
surface to do this by shooting the beam from one direction would require a sure kill of all cells along
the beam path.
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With increase of the photon energy the problem becomes
less severe
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Consider what happens if you use two beams entering the patient from opposite directions. The resulting dose distribution will be the sum of the contributions from the two fields. Plotting the dose along the central axis of this opposing pair of fields
we get something that looks like
Even with this simple arrangement we can get more dose in a deep-seated tumor than in the over-lying normal tissue. This idea can be extended to more complex arrangements
ranging from standard 3, 4 or more field geometries to quite complex individualized plans that incorporate beam modifiers. However the total dose to healthy tissue is not
reduced it is merely spread!!!
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We will discuss actual modern procedures later.
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With a linear accelerator it may also be possible to extract the electron beam before it hits the thick target. This beam is usually scattered by a thin metal foil to produce a large, reasonably flat field. Recall that electrons have a finite range in tissue and thatdose is deposited in roughly equal amounts per unit pathlength. Therefore we might expect a broad electron beam to produce a depth-dose curve that is constant up to the range of the electron and then falls off rapidly. Real depth-dose curves show roughly these features:
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Electron scattering is responsible for “blurring” of the sharp fall-off and also results in a relatively fuzzy edge to the beam.
These isodose plots show that the distribution tends to deterioratewith depth. Nonetheless, electron beams are very useful in
treating targets relatively close to the surface, especially whensensitive normal tissues (such as the spinal cord) lie directly
beneath the target volume.
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This graph shows typical survival curves for mammalian cells. For x-rays, note the “shoulder” on the survival curve in the low dose region. Radiation is less effective in killing cells at low dose because the cell is capable of repairing some radiation damage. At higher doses the survival is approximately exponential as the survival decreases by a factor of 1/e for
each dose increment D0. For mammalian cells D0 is about 1 - 2 Gy.
Before discussing modern procedures of radiotherapy with photons we look again briefly at the biological effects relevant for oncological treatments.
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Effect of oxygen on survival curves. Very important for treating large tumors in which many cells are hypoxic. One of the key reasons for using fractions.
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Dividing the total dose to the fractions given for several days/ weeks. Between the fractions the
cancer cells which did not have oxygen and which survived the first fraction start to receive
oxygen since oxygen rich cancer cells were killed. Also repair does not work as well in many
cancer cells and they divide more frequently.
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At a high enough dose we would have a high probability of curing every tumor. Unfortunately, this may also kill most of the normal tissue.
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Progress in the tools of radiotherapy is closely correlated with the progress in diagnostic tools - without a good
knowledge of the position of the tumor precise delivery would be meaningless.
Simple treatment delivers uniform dose from 2-4 beam angles Beam shape is rectangular or squareBeam hits healthy tissue as well as tumorDoses have to be kept low to minimize harm to normal tissue
Pink = treatment field or area hit by beam
Primary collimator shapes beam
Conventional Radiotherapy - 1960s
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Early Beam Shaping - 1970s
Blocks and wedges used to shape beams and begin sparing healthy tissue Blocks are changed by hand for each beam angleLabor intensive process requires therapist to visit treatment room repeatedlyTypical treatments use 4 beam angles Dose still relatively low
Roughly shaped treatment field
Wedge helps shape beam
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3-D Conformal Radiation Therapy - late 1980s
Custom-molded block(s) match beam shape to tumor profile Beam shaping from multiple angles conforms radiation dose to tumor volumeTypical treatments use 4-6 beam anglesDose still relatively low Blocks still changed by handStill slow and labor intensive
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Beam shaping automated with first multileaf collimators (MLC)Less labor intensive--no entering and exiting treatment room to change blocks Doctors use CT scans to see tumors in 3-D for more precise treatment planningTreatment uses 4-6 beam angles
Introduction of themultileaf collimator
Automated 3-D Conformal Radiation Therapy (CRT)
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Divides each treatment field into multiple segments (up to 500/angle)
Intensity Modulated Radiation Therapy (IMRT) - mid 1990s
A Revolution inRadiotherapy
Allows dose escalation to most aggressive tumor cells; best protection of healthy tissue Modulates radiation intensity; gives distinct dose to each segment
Uses 9+ beam angles, thousands of segments
Improves precision/accuracy
Requires inverse treatment planning software to calculate dose distribution
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Intensity Modulated Radiation
Therapy (IMRT)
with nine x-ray
beams
© Tony Lomax (PSI)
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Early IMRT--Nomos
Patients must be moved to treat larger tumors.
Collimator is only 4 cm high
Beam shaping by a “MIMiC™” MLC device with 40 leaves Maximum field size 4 cm X 20 cm Minimum segments size is 1 cm X 1 cm Patient must be moved during treatment of larger areas
Problems: Low resolution Slow, uncomfortable (patient can be on couch 45-60 minutes per treatment) Noisy, nerve wracking
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Today: SmartBeam IMRT
MLC becomes dynamic
MLC now covers 40 X 40 cm Up to 120 leaves Segments shrink to 2.5 X 5 mm No patient movement required
Uses “sliding windows” to speed treatment (10-15 min) and improve patient comfort
Makes IMRT efficient, cost effective, quiet
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Treating Head & Neck with Sliding Windows
Images from theUniversity of Chicago Medical Center, Department of Radiation and Cellular Oncology
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Prostate Cancer: Improved Outcomes
Dose Level Advanced Stage Complication Rate 2.5-Year Local (Grade 2 Bleeding) Control (Biopsy)
68 Gy 43% >6%
70 Gy 64% 6%
76 Gy 73% 17%
81 Gy – 3D CRT 96% 10%
81 Gy - inverse planned (IMRT) 2%
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IMRT Plan for Vertebral Body Tumor
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IMRT - A Complex Process involving a team of physicians, physicists and radiation
therapists (big shortage of physicists!!!) (see table next slide)
Planning
Plan Verification
Position Verification
target localization
Treatment Delivery
and Verification
Delivery
Structure Segmentation
Treatment Optimization
Patient Immobilization
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CT/MRI/PET Image Acquisition allows to fix position of tumor with with precision
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Tumor
Node #1
Tumor
Node #2
Tumor
Image Guidance (PET/CT) allows to determine accurately position of the tumor
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Bite-block Head Holder
Immobilization
Aquaplast
Vacuum frame
Newest development : systems which adjust for breathings while delivering beams. Use of lasers, ....
Breath Control Spirometer
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Treatment Delivery: Multileaf Collimator insures high transverse resolution
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Beam Delivery with a MultiLeaf Collimator: resolution 2.5 x 5.0 mm
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0.03 MU Dose Delivery
2.5 mm spatial longitudinal
5.0mm spatial lateral
Beam Delivery with a MLC
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Intensity Modulation
No Intensity Modulation Intensity Modulation
Same Shape
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Modulation of intensity allows to deliver equal doses to the parts of tumor which have different distance from the surface
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Conventional Treatment Planning
Postulating a number of candidate radiation fields based on the planner’s experience; adjusting beam parameters manually to create a better dose distribution.
Inverse Treatment Planning
Dose prescription is given firstA set of intensity-modulated external
fields is generated through an optimization process
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Principal difference of IMRT from conventional treatment (still used in 60-
70% of cases) is that Conventional treatment planning starts with a
set of beam weights and obtains aplan by a trial-and-error process.
This procedure won’t work for IMRT since there are too many unknowns (>2000 beamlet weights).
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70%
80%
90%
!!
!
40%
Conventional Treatment PlanningForward Planning
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70%
80%
90%
??
?
40%
!
IMRT Treatment PlanningInverse Planning
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One solves a problem of minimizing a a certain function (functional) based on the desired dose to the tumor and
minimizing dose to surrounding area with different weights for sensitive organs. Many algorithms, many ways to choose the
functional form.
Example: Objective function
5.021 })]()()[({ rDrDrIC nr
pMn −= ∑
Dp
(r) is the prescribed dose
Dn
(r) is the computed dose at nth iteration
I(r) is the weight (importance) for each organ
r denotes 3D elements of the body
I(r)Assigning particular values of is
obviously the job of radiologist.
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Di= Cij Wj
-- Weight for beamlet jwjCij
-- dose contribution in voxel i from beamlet j in an open beam
i
j
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Dose Calculation for IMRT
•Total dose in voxel i
•Or dose in any voxel in a more generic form
jijnj
i WCD ∑−=
=1
i
j
CWD=
jijnj
i WCD ∑−=
=1
CWD =
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Objective Function
Many techniques for calculation of the minimum - all techniques obviously
approximate - number of variables is huge. In any case input parameters have intrinsic errors.
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One Monte Carlo algorithm which allows to include such features as dispersion over the
energy of the photons ANCOD extends GEANT3 event generator developed at CERN
for modeling detectors
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Optimisation: Field Direction.
Beams directions. Beams intersections with voxels.
Lwe calculation. Voxels ordering: (i,j,k) n .
Volume total
Source
Field
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Optimize
Iterative method used in ANCOD:
Dose required, in a specific voxel, is modified in each iteration.
We start our calculation of weight of a given beam without considering any correlation with the other beams, then the weight of the following beam is calculated taking into account the precedent one.
Once we have the first set of the fluence (flux integrated over the time) values, it is necessary to iterate many times to find the fluence values satisfying the best to requirements and prescriptions.
) voxel , beam ( dw) voxel(Dbeam
beamrequired ∑= ) voxel , beam ( dw) voxel(Dbeam
beamrequired ∑=
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Dose
X
Y
Example of a treatment plan optimized with ANCOD++
Pixels along X
X
Pix
el le
long
de
YPix
els
alo
ng
Y
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Dose u.a
X
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DVH inside target
DVH outside target
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∑ ∑ ⎟⎠
⎞⎜⎝
⎛−=
voxels
2
faisceauxfaisceau
voxelprescrite ) voxel , beam ( dwD) W(F ∑ ∑ ⎟
⎠
⎞⎜⎝
⎛−=
voxels
2
faisceauxfaisceau
voxelprescrite ) voxel , beam ( dwD) W(F
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Tomotherapy: A “revolution” in radiation therapy
Tomotherapy - slice therapy.Two approaches currently developed: serial
tomotherapyby NOMOS corporation and helical tomotherapy by
University of Wisconsin based group.Serial tomotherapy: fan beam of maximal width of 20 cm.
Multileaf collimator produces pencil beams of two shapes 0.8 x 1 cm and 1.6x 1 cm.
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Helical tomotherapy Geometry of 4th generation CT
scanner.Combination of a helical CT scanner and a linear
acceleratorBeam from accelerator is collimated by
Multileaf collimator generating pencil beams of 6.25 mm x 6.25 mm
and width of 20 cm.
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Imaging uses at least for now high energy photons. Continuos imaging allows to adjust for changes in the position of the tumor from one exposure to another.
http://www.tomotherapy.com/video/entry/tomotherapy_animation
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Axial, Coronal, Saggital views of IMC/Breast delivery. Top row: Tomo Delivery,
Bottom row: Tangents, plus IMC photons and electrons (5 -field).
Example: Conformal dose to breast & Internal Mammary Chain (IMC)
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QuickTime™ and aCinepak decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
Cyberknife, Stanford
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Right anterior oblique 3D image showing 90 CyberKnife isocentric treatment positions and their relative intensities. The single fraction isocentric treatment in this case took 35 minutes.
208 beam positions for the treatment of this optic apparatus meningioma
demonstrates both the non-isocentric flexibility of the CyberKnife System for treatment of the tumor. In this case the
patient was treated with 5 fractions over 5 days at 40 minutes per fraction.
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