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Quantum electrodynamics (QED)based on S-58
Quantum electrodynamics is a theory of photons interacting with the electrons and positrons of a Dirac field:
Noether current of the lagrangian for a free Dirac field
we want the current to be conserved and so we need to enlarge the gauge transformation also to the Dirac field:
symmetry of the lagrangian and so the current is conserved no matter if equations of motion are satisfied
global symmetry is promoted into localREV
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We can write the QED lagrangian as:
covariant derivative(the covariant derivative of a field transforms as the field itself)
Proof:
and so the lagrangian is manifestly gauge invariant!
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We can also define the transformation rule for D:
then
as required.
Now we can express the field strength in terms of D’s:
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Then we simply see:
the field strength is gauge invariant as we already knew
no derivatives act on exponentialsREV
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lagrangian has also the symmetry, , that enlarges SO(N) to O(N)
Nonabelian symmetriesbased on S-24
Let’s generalize the theory of two real scalar fields:
to the case of N real scalar fields:
the lagrangian is clearly invariant under the SO(N) transformation:orthogonal matrix with det = 1
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we choose normalization:
or .
there are linearly independent real antisymmetric matrices, and we can write:
infinitesimal SO(N) transformation:
RTij = !ij + "ji
R!1ij = !ij ! "ij
Im(R!1R)ij = Im!
k
RkiRkj = 0
antisymmetric
(N^2 linear combinations of Im parts = 0)
real
hermitian, antisymmetric, NxN
R = e!i!aT a
generator matrices of SO(N)
The commutator of two generators is a lin. comb. of generators:
structure constants of the SO(N) groupREV
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e.g. SO(3):
Levi-Civita symbol
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we can always write so that .
consider now a theory of N complex scalar fields:
the lagrangian is clearly invariant under the U(N) transformation:
group of unitary NxN matrices
SU(N) - group of special unitary NxN matrices
U(N) = U(1) x SU(N)
actually, the lagrangian has larger symmetry, SO(2N):REV
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or .
there are linearly independent traceless hermitian matrices:
infinitesimal SU(N) transformation:hermitian
traceless
U = e!i!aT a
e.g. SU(2) - 3 Pauli matrices
SU(3) - 8 Gell-Mann matricesthe structure coefficients
are , the same as for SO(3)REV
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then the kinetic terms and mass terms: , , and , are gauge invariant. The transformation of covariant derivative in general implies that the gauge field transforms as:
Nonabelian gauge theorybased on S-69
Consider a theory of N scalar or spinor fields that is invariant under:
for SO(N): a special orthogonal NxN matrixfor SU(N): a special unitary NxN matrix
In the case of U(1) we could promote the symmetry to local symmetry but we had to include a gauge field and promote ordinary derivative to covariant derivative:
for U(1):
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Now we can easily generalize this construction for SU(N) or SO(N):
an infinitesimal SU(N) transformation:
generator matrices (hermitian and traceless):
gauge coupling constant
structure constants (completely antisymmetric)
from to from to
the SU(N) gauge field is a traceless hermitian NxN matrix transforming as:
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the covariant derivative is:
NxN identity matrixor acting on a field:
using covariant derivative we get a gauge invariant lagrangian
We define the field strength (kinetic term for the gauge field) as:
a new term
it transforms as:
and so the gauge invariant kinetic term can be written as:not gauge invariant separately
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we can expand the gauge field in terms of the generator matrices:
that can be inverted:
similarly:
thus we have:
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the kinetic term can be also written as:
Example, quantum chromodynamics - QCD:
1, ... , 8 gluons(massles spin 1 particles)
flavor index:up, down, strange, charm, top, bottom
color index: 1,2, 3
in general, scalar and spinor fields can be in different representations of the group, ; gauge invariance requires that the gauge fields transform independently of the representation.
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