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Public Management
Leaderships and Entrepreneurship Wednesday, April 19, 2023
Hun Myoung Park, Ph.D.
Public Management & Policy Analysis ProgramGraduate School of International Relations
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Leaderships 1
• Capacity of someone to direct and energize people to achieve goals.
• Bass (1997:17) states – Focus of group processes, as a matter of personality, – Matter of inducing compliance, as the exercise of
influence, – Particular behaviors, as a form of persuasion, – Power relation, as an instrument to achieve goals, – Effect of interaction, as a differentiated role, – Initiation of structure, – Many combinations of these definitions
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Leaderships 2
• Leadership styles vary among individuals, countries, and cultures
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Functions of General Management
• Allison (1983)– Strategy: establishing objectives and priorities;
devising operational plans – Managing internal components: organizing and
staffing; directing personnel and the personnel management system; controlling performance
– Managing external constituencies: dealing with external units subject to some common authority; with independent organizations; with the press and the public
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Executive Roles
• Mintzberg (1972)
Interpersonal Informational Decisional
Figurehead
Leader
Liaison
Monitor
Disseminator
Spokesperson
Entrepreneur
Disturbance handler
Resource allocator
Negotiator
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Management Skill Topics
• Whetton and Cameron (2002)– Self awareness– Managing personal stress– Creative problem solving– Managing conflicts– Improving employee performance, motivating others – Effective delegation and joint decision making– Gaining power and influence– Establishing supportive communication– Improving group decision making
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Benchmarks Scales
• McCauley, Lombardo, and Usher (1989)– Resourcefulness; doing whatever it takes; being a
quick study– Building and mending relationships; leading
subordinates; compassion and sensitivity– Straightforwardness and composure; setting a
developmental climate; confronting problem subordinates team orientation; balance between personal life and work
– Decisiveness; self-awareness; hiring talented staff; putting people at easy; acting with flexibility
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Types of Leadership 1
• Burns (1978) • Transactional Leaders
– Motivate followers by recognizing their needs and providing rewards in exchange for their performance and support.
• Transformational Leaders– Rely on power but not in a controlling centralized way. – Raise followers goals to a higher plane, to a focus on
transcendental, higher-level goals (self-actualization) – Have talent for coupling visions of success to
empowerment and motivation
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Types of Leadership 2
• Bass (1995, 1998) • Transformational behaviors
– Idealized influence– Intellectual stimulation– Individual consideration– Inspirational motivation
• Transactional behaviors– Contingent rewards – Management by expectation – Active management by exception
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Types of Leadership 3
• Bennis and Nanus (1985)– “Leading” (guiding directions, actions or
opinions to “do the right thing”) – “Managing” (accomplishing things efficiently
or “doing things right”)
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Charismatic Leadership 1
• Extension of work on transformational leadership
• Charisma is treated as a matter of the characteristics that followers attribute to their leaders.
• Two strains– The attribution theory of charismatic
leadership– The self-concept theory of charismatic
leadership
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Charismatic Leadership 2
• In attribution theory, leaders who:– Advocate a vision that is highly discrepant
from status quo– Act in unconventional ways– Demonstrate self-sacrifices– Have confidence– Use persuasive appeals rather than authority
or participative decision process– Use capacity to access context and locate
opportunities
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Charismatic Leadership 3
• Self-Concept theory emphasizes observable characteristics of leaders and followers
– Personal identification– Social identification and self-esteem– Internalization of leader’s beliefs
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Sources of Power
• Legitimate: procedural legitimacy • Reword: tangible and intangible rewards• Coercive: punishment and sanction• Expert: knowledge, skills, expertise• Referent power: subordinates’ respect,
admiration, and loyalty
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Leadership Theories & Studies
• Trait theories• Ohio State leadership studies• The Blake and Moulton managerial grid• Fiedler’s theory of leadership• The Path-Goal theory of leadership• Vroom-Yetton normative model• Life Cycle theory• Attribuition models• Leader-Member Exchange theory• Operant Conditioning and Social Learning models• Cognitive Resource Utilization Theory
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Trait Models of Leadership
• Certain personality leadership traits constituting their leadership capacity.
• Intelligence; knowledge and expertise; dominance; self-confidence; high energy; tolerance for stress; integrity and honesty; maturity
• Attempts to isolate specific traits led to the conclusion that no single characteristic distinguishes leaders from non-leaders.
• What is the best? Does that always work?
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OSU Behavior Theory
• Developed questionnaires asking people to report on the behaviors of their supervisors
• Findings indicated leaders fell into 2 categories– Consideration: leaders’ concern for the relationships
with their subordinates– Initiating structure: leaders’ emphasis on setting
standards, assigning roles, and pressing for productivity and performance
• Criticisms– Measures questioned– Are 2 dimensions really enough for full picture?
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Managerial Grid
• Blake and Mouton (1984)
• Concern for people and production– Authority-obedience management– Country club management – Impoverished management – Team management
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Fiedler’s Contingency Theory
• Relationship between leader style, organizational setting and effectiveness
• Two types of leaders – High LPC: relationship-oriented – Low LPC: task-oriented
• Three contingencies (situations)– Leader-member relations– Task structure– Position power of the leader
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Fiedler’s Contingency Theory
• High LPC leaders are relationship oriented. – Gave favorable ratings to LPC.– High LPC leaders perform best when the
contingencies are mixed in regard to favorability, that is, when conditions are relatively ordered.
– The emphasis on relationships helps to mitigate the negative effect of unfavorable contingencies.
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Fiedler’s Contingency Theory
• Low LPC are task-oriented– Rated more unfavorably– Low LPC leaders perform best when the three
contingencies are unfavorable (disorder) or all three are favorable (order).
– In short, task-oriented leadership is preferred in very favorable or least favorable situation
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House’s Path-Goal Theory
• Based on the expectancy theory of motivation and emphasizes the three motivational variables– Valences– Instrumentalities– Expectancies
• Leader’s primary purpose is to motivate followers by clarifying goals and identifying the best paths to achieve those goals.
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House’s Path-Goal Theory
• Leader is to manipulate these 3 motivational variables in desirable ways considering a variety of leadership styles, characteristics of subordinates, and situational factors
• Leadership (behavioral) styles: – Directive, – Supportive, – Participative, and– Achievement-oriented
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Leader-Member Exchange Theory
• Leader-member exchange theory maintains that the leader and each individual member of a work group have a unique "dyadic" relationship.
• Each dyad is seen as a social exchange or negotiated transaction of leader-member.
• The basic assumption is that leaders develop a separate exchange relationship with each individual subordinate.
• Exchange relationships can take two different forms.– High-exchange relationship – Low-exchange relationship
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Communication of Culture
• Symbols: Physical objects, settings, and certain roles within an organization convey information about its values and basic assumptions.
• Language: Slang, songs, slogans, and jargons can all carry the messages of a culture.
• Narratives: The people in an organization often repeat stories, legends, sagas, and myths that convey information about the organization’s history and practices.
• Practices and Events: Repeated practices and special events can transmit important assumptions and values. They may include rites and ceremonies
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Contingencies and Variations
• Many variations in context and in the individual officials surveyed account for the different views about managerial roles of public managers. – The level of the manger and the institutional context
varies. – Public mangers must balance managerial tasks with
policymaking and with handling the political and institutional environment (oversight agencies, legislative and other executive authorities, clients and constituents, and the media).
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Lessons from Leaderships
• No single leadership works in all circumstances and contexts.
• Leadership is to be built, not fixed or given. • Zone of acceptance (cooperation) & rationality• Need to be exposed to many leadership cases, for
example, from history in the East and West• Learn different styles and leadership skills;
examine circumstances (subordinate, task, culture, etc.); and choose the most likely style
• “Chameleon leaderships”