Download - Production and cost
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Business Firm
An entity that employs factors of production (resources) to produce goods and services to be sold to consumers, other firms, or the government.
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Managerial Coordination and Business Firms
The process in which managers direct employees to perform certain tasks.
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Why Do Business Firms Arise in the First Place?
Firms are formed when benefits can be obtained from individuals working as a team.
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Problem of and Solutions for “Team” Work
Problem: Shirking - The behavior of a worker who is putting forth less than the agreed to effort.
Solution: Monitor – Person (manager) in a business firm who coordinates team production and reduces shirking.
Problem: Monitor shirkingSolution: Make the monitor a Residual
Claimants - Persons who share in the profits of a business firm.
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Markets: Inside and Outside the Firm
Economics is largely about trades or exchanges; it is about market transactions.
In supply-and-demand analysis, the exchanges are between buyers of goods and services and sellers of goods and services.
In the theory of the firm, the exchanges take place at two levels: (1) at the level of individuals coming together to form a team and (2) at the level of workers “choosing” a monitor.
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Firm’s Objective: Maximizing Profit
The difference between total revenue and total cost.
Profit = Total revenue - Total cost
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Explicit and Implicit Cost
Explicit Cost - A cost incurred when an actual (monetary) payment is made.
Implicit Cost - A cost that represents the value of resources used in production for which no actual (monetary) payment is made.
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Accounting, Economic and Normal Profit I
Accounting Profit - The difference between total revenue and explicit costs.
Economic Profit - The difference between total revenue and total cost, including both explicit and implicit costs.
Normal Profit - Zero economic profit. A firm that earns normal profit is earning revenue equal to its total costs (explicit plus implicit costs). This is the level of profit necessary to keep resources employed in that particular firm.
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Accounting, Economic and Normal Profit II
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Production and Cost: Fixed and Variable Inputs
Fixed Input - An input whose quantity cannot be changed as output changes.
Variable Input - An input whose quantity can be changed as output changes.
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Production and Cost:Short and Long Run
Short Run - A period of time in which some inputs in the production process are fixed.
Long Run - A period of time in which all inputs in the production process can be varied (no inputs are fixed).
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Marginal Physical Product (MPP)
Marginal Physical Product (MPP) - The change in output that results from changing the variable input by one unit, holding all other inputs fixed
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Production in the Short Run and the Law of Diminishing Marginal
ReturnsIn the short run, as additional units of a
variable input are added to a fixed input, the marginal physical product of the variable input may increase at first.
Eventually, the marginal physical product of the variable input decreases.
The point at which marginal physical product decreases is the point at which diminishing marginal returns have set in.
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Law of Diminishing Marginal Returns
Law of Diminishing Marginal Returns - As ever-larger amounts of a variable input are combined with fixed inputs, eventually, the marginal physical product of the variable input will decline.
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Production in the Short Run and the Law of Diminishing Marginal
Productivity
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Fixed, Variable, Total and Marginal Cost
Fixed Costs (FC) - Costs that do not vary with output; the costs associated with fixed inputs.
Variable Cost (VC) - Costs that vary with output; the costs associated with variable inputs.
Total Cost (TC) - The sum of fixed costs and variable costs. TC = TFC + TVC
Marginal Cost (MC) - The change in total cost that results from a change in output: MC = ΔTC/Δ Q.
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Marginal Physical Product and Marginal Cost I
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Marginal Physical Product and Marginal Cost II
The marginal physical product of labor curve is derived by plotting the data from columns 2 and 4 in the exhibit.
The marginal cost curve is derived by plotting the data from columns 3 and 8 in the exhibit. See next slide.
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Notice that as the MPP curve rises, the MC curve falls; and as the MPP curve falls, the MC curve rises.
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Average Productivity
Q = OutputL = Number of units of labor
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Average Fixed, Variable and Total Cost
Average Fixed Cost (AFC) - Total fixed cost divided by quantity of output: AFC = TFC / Q.
Average Variable Cost (AVC) - Total variable cost divided by quantity of output: AVC = TVC / Q.
Average Total Cost (ATC), or Unit Cost - Total cost divided by quantity of output: ATC = TC / Q.
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Total, Average & Marginal Costs I
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Total, Average & Marginal Costs II
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Average-Marginal Rule
When the marginal magnitude is above the average magnitude, the average magnitude rises; when the marginal magnitude is below the average magnitude, the average magnitude falls.
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Average and Marginal Cost Curves
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Tying Production to Costs
What happens in terms of production (MPP rising or falling) affects MC, which in turn eventually affects AVC and ATC.
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Production and Costs in the Long Run
In the short run, there are fixed costs and variable costs; therefore, total cost is the sum of the two.
A period of time in which all inputs in the production process can be varied (no inputs are fixed). In the long run, there are no fixed costs, so variable costs are total costs.
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Long-Run Average Total Cost (LRATC) Curve
A curve that shows the lowest (unit) cost at which the firm can produce any given level of output.
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Long-Run Average Total CostCurve (LRATC )
There are three short-run average total cost curves for three different plant sizes.
If these are the only plant sizes, the long-run average total cost curve is the heavily shaded, blue scalloped curve.
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Long-Run Average Total CostCurve (LRATC )
The long-run average total cost curve is the heavily shaded, blue smooth curve.
The LRATC curve is not scalloped because it is assumed that there are so many plant sizes that the LRATC curve touches each SRATC curve at only one point.
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Economies of Scale I
Economies of Scale exist when inputs are increased by some percentage and output increases by a greater percentage, causing unit costs to fall.
Constant Returns to Scale exist when inputs are increased by some percentage and output increases by an equal percentage, causing unit costs to remain constant.
Diseconomies of Scale exist when inputs are increased by some percentage and output increases by a smaller percentage, causing unit costs to rise.
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Why Economies of Scale?
Up to a certain point, long-run unit costs of production fall as a firm grows. There are two main reasons for this:
Growing firms offer greater opportunities for employees to specialize.
Growing firms can take advantage of highly efficient mass production techniques and equipment that ordinarily require large setup costs and thus are economical only if they can be spread over a large number of units.
2/3 rule
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Why Diseconomies of Scale?
In very large firms, managers often find it difficult to coordinate work activities, communicate their directives to the right persons in satisfactory time, and monitor personnel effectively.
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Economies of Scale II
The lowest output level at which average total costs are minimized.
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A firm’s cost curves will shift if there is a change in:TaxesInput pricesTechnology.
Shifts in Cost Curves
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Isoquants
An isoquant is a graph that shows all the combinations of capital and labour that can be used to produce a given amount of output.
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Properties of Isoquant Maps
There are an infinite number of combinations of labour and capital that can produce each level of output.
Every point lies on some isoquant.The slope of an isoquant is equal to: -
MPlabour / MPcapital = - MPL / MPK = ΔK / ΔLThe slope of the isoquant is called the marginal rate of
technical substitution which can be defined as the rate at which a firm can substitute capital for labour and hold output constant.
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Isoquants Showing All Combinations of Capital and Labour That Can Be Used to
Produce 50, 100, and 150 Units of Output
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The Slope of an Isoquant Is Equal to the Ratio of MPL to
MPK
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Isocosts
An isocost is a graph that shows all the combinations of capital and labour available for a given cost.
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Isocost Lines Showing the Combinations of Capital and Labour
Available for $5, $6, & $7
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Isocost Line Showing All Combinations of Capital and
Labour Available for $25
The slope of an isocost line is
equal to - PL / PK.
The simple way to draw an isocost is to calculate the endpoints on the line and connect them.
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The Cost Minimizing Equilibrium Condition
Slope of isoquant = - MPL / MPK
Slope of isocost = - PL / PK
For cost minimization we set these equal and rearrange to obtain:
MPL / PL = MPK / PK
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Finding the Least-Cost Combination of Capital and Labour to Produce 50 Units of Output
Profit-maximizing firms will minimize costs by producing their chosen level of output with the technology represented by the point at which the isoquant is tangent to an isocost line.Point A on this diagram
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Minimizing Cost of Production for qx = 50, qx
= 100, and qx = 150
Plotting a series of cost- minimizing combinations of inputs - shown here as A, B and C - enables us to derive a cost curve.
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A Cost Curve Showing the Minimum Cost of Producing Each
Level of Output
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Review Terms & Concepts
isocost lineisoquantmarginal rate of technical substitution
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The Cobb-Douglas Production Function
Y = AKL(1-)
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The Cobb-Douglas Production Function
History
Developed by Paul Douglas and C. W. Cobb in the 1930’s
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The Cobb-Douglas Production Function
History
Developed by Paul Douglas and C. W. Cobb in the 1930’sDouglas went on
to be professor at Chicago and U.S. Senator
Cobb - ??
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The Cobb-Douglas Production Function
The General Problem
An increase in a nation’s capital stock or labor force means more output.
Is there a mathematical formula that relates capital, labor and output?
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The Cobb-Douglas Production Function
The General Form
1tttt LKAY
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The Cobb-Douglas Production Function
Increasing Capital
1
1
)2( oo
ooo
LKAY
LAKY
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The Cobb-Douglas Production Function
Increasing Capital
ooo
oo
ooo
YLAK
LKAY
LAKY
22
)2(1
1
1
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The Cobb-Douglas Production Function
Increasing Capital
ooo
oo
ooo
YLAK
LKAY
LAKY
22
)2(1
1
1
Diminishing returns to proportion
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The Cobb-Douglas Production Function
Increasing Labor
1
1
)2( oo
ooo
LAKY
LAKY
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The Cobb-Douglas Production Function
Increasing Labor
ooo
oo
ooo
YLAK
LAKY
LAKY
111
1
1
22
)2(
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The Cobb-Douglas Production Function
Increasing Labor
ooo
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YLAK
LAKY
LAKY
111
1
1
22
)2(
Diminishing returns to proportion
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The Cobb-Douglas Production Function
Increasing Both
1
1
)2()2( oo
ooo
LKAY
LAKY
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The Cobb-Douglas Production Function
Increasing Both
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YLAK
LKAY
LAKY
22
)2()2(1
1
1
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The Cobb-Douglas Production Function
Increasing Both
ooo
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YLAK
LKAY
LAKY
22
)2()2(1
1
1
Constant returns to scale
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The Cobb-Douglas Production Function
Substitution
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LAKY
1
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)()2(
Capital and Labor Can be Substituted
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The Cobb-Douglas Production Function
An Illustration
2/12/1
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The Cobb-Douglas Production Function
An Illustration
2/12/1 LAKY
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The Cobb-Douglas Production Function
An Illustration
KLAY
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The Cobb-Douglas Production Function
An Illustration
KLAY A =3 L =10
K =10
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The Cobb-Douglas Production Function
An Illustration
301003)10)(10(3 Y
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The Cobb-Douglas Production Function
Doubling Capital
42230
2003)10)(20(3
Y
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The Cobb-Douglas Production Function
Constant Returns to Scale
604003)20)(20(3 Y
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The Cobb-Douglas Production Function
Substitution
5
30))(20(3
x
xY
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The Cobb-Douglas Production Function
Estimation
)log()1(
)log()log()log(
1
t
ttt
tttt
L
KAY
LKAY
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The Cobb-Douglas Production Function
Estimation
)log(
)log()log(
2
1
tt
tt
L
KtCY
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The Cobb-Douglas Production Function
Estimation
)log(
)log()log(
2
1
tt
tt
L
KY
Statistical issues abound!
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The Cobb-Douglas Production Function
Factor Payments
= % of Income going to owners of capital
1- = % of Income going to workers
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The Cobb-Douglas Production Function
How well does it work?
tttt LKAY
You can’t beat something with nothing
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The Cobb-Douglas Production Function
Leontief Production Function
K
L
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The Cobb-Douglas Production Function
Leontief Production Function
K = aYL = bY
K
L
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The Cobb-Douglas Production Function
Leontief Production Function
K = aYL = bY
K
L
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The Cobb-Douglas Production Function
Leontief Production Function
K = aYL = bY
K
L
= 0
![Page 80: Production and cost](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062418/55620eabd8b42a7d028b4e1e/html5/thumbnails/80.jpg)
The Cobb-Douglas Production Function
Leontief Production Function
K = aYL = bY
K
L
Doesn’t work. We can and do substitute labor for capital all the
time
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The Cobb-Douglas Production Function
Other Factors?
1
ttttt LNDLKAY
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The Cobb-Douglas Production Function
And in Conclusion…
1tttt LKAY