Process CreationDESIGN AND ANALYSIS II - (c) Daniel R. Lewin1
054402 Design and Analysis II
LECTURE 2: PROCESS CREATION
Daniel R. LewinDepartment of Chemical Engineering
Technion, Haifa, Israel
Process CreationDESIGN AND ANALYSIS II - (c) Daniel R. Lewin2
Objectives
Understand how to go about assembling design data and creating a preliminary data base.
Be able to implement the steps in creating flowsheets involving reactions, separations, and T-P change operations. In so doing, many alternatives are identified that can be assembled into a synthesis tree that contains the most promising alternatives.
Know how to select the principal pieces of equipment and to create a detailed process flowsheet, with a material and energy balance and a list of major equipment items.
On completing this part of the course, you should:
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Schedule - Process Creation
Preliminary Database Creation– to assemble data to support the design.
Experiments– often necessary to supply missing database items or
verify crucial data. Preliminary Process Synthesis
– top-down approach.– to generate a “synthesis tree” of design alternatives.– illustrated by the synthesis of processes for the
manufacture of VCM and tPA. Development of Base-case Design
– focusing on the most promising alternative(s) from the synthesis tree.
Ref: Seider, Seader and Lewin (1999), Chapter 2
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Preliminary Database Creation
Thermophysical property data– physical properties– phase equilibria (VLE data)– Property prediction methods
Environmental and safety data– toxicity data– flammability data
Chemical Prices– e.g. as published in the Chemical Marketing Reporter
Experiments– to check on crucial items above
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Preliminary Process Synthesis
Synthesis of chemical processes involves: Selection of processing mode: continuous or batch Fixing the chemical state of raw materials, products, and by-
products, noting the differences between them. Process operations (unit operations) - flowsheet building
blocks Synthesis steps -
Eliminate differences in molecular types
Distribute chemicals by matching sources and sinks
Eliminate differences in composition
Eliminate differences in temperature, pressure and phase
Integrate tasks (combine tasks into unit operations)
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Continuous or batch processing?
Continuous
Batch
Fed-batch
Batch-product removal
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The Chemical State
Decide on the raw material and product specifications (states): Mass (flow rate) Composition (mole or mass fraction of each chemical
species having a unique molecular type) Phase (solid, liquid, or gas) Form (e.g., particle-size distribution and particle
shape) Temperature Pressure
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Process Operations (“Lego”)
Chemical reaction– Positioning in the flowsheet involves many considerations
(conversion, rates, etc.), related to T and P at which the reaction are carried out.
Separation of chemicals– needed to resolve difference between the desired
composition of a product stream and that of its source. Selection of the appropriate method depends on the differences of the physical properties of the chemical species involved.
Phase separation Change of temperature Change of pressure Change of phase Mixing and splitting of streams and branches
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Synthesis Steps
Synthesis Step Eliminate differences in
molecular types
Distribute chemicals by matching sources and sinks
Eliminate differences in composition
Eliminate differences in temperature, pressure and phase
Integrate tasks (combine tasks into unit operations)
Process Operation Chemical reaction
Mixing
Separation
Temperature, pressure and phase change
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Example 1:
Vinyl Chloride Manufacture
Process Creation
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Eliminate differences in molecular types
Chemical
Molecular weight
Chemical f ormula
Chemical st ructure
Acetylene 26.04 C2H2 H - C C - H
Chlor ine 70.91 Cl2 Cl-Cl
1,2-Dichloroethane
98.96
C2H4Cl2
Cl Cl | |
H-C-C-H | |
H H
Ethylene
28.05
C2H4
H HC = C
H H
Hydrogen chlor ide 36.46 HCl H-Cl
Vinyl chlor ide
62.50
C2H3Cl
H ClC = C
H H
Chemicals participating in VC Manufacture:
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Direct chlorination of ethylene:
Selection of pathway to VCM (1)
Advantages:– Attractive solution to the specific problem denoted as
Alternative 2 in analysis of primitive problem.– Occurs spontaneously at a few hundred oC.
Disadvantages:– Does not give a high yield of VC without simultaneously
producing large amounts of by-products such as dichloroethylene
– Half of the expensive chlorine is consumed to produce HCl by-product, which may not be sold easily.
HCl ClHC Cl HC 32242 (2.1)
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Hydrochlorination of acetylene:
Selection of pathway to VCM (2)
Advantages:– This exothermic reaction is a potential solution for the
specific problem denoted as Alternative 3. It provides a good conversion (98%) of C2H2 VC in the presence of HgCl2 catalyst impregnated in activated carbon at atmospheric pressure.
– These are fairly moderate reaction conditions, and hence,
this reaction deserves further study. Disadvantages:
– Flammability limits of C2H2 (2.5 100%)
ClHC HCl HC 3222 (2.2)
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Thermal cracking of C2H4Cl2 from chlorination of C2H4:
Selection of pathway to VCM (3)
Advantages:
– Conversion of ethylene to 1,2-dichloroethane in exothermic reaction (2.3) is 98% at 90 oC and 1 atm with a Friedel-Crafts catalyst such as FeCl3. This intermediate is converted
to vinyl chloride by thermal cracking according to the endothermic reaction (2.4), which occurs spontaneously at
500 oC with conversions as high as 65% (Alternative 2). Disadvantage:
– Half of the expensive chlorine is consumed to produce HCl by-product, which may not be sold easily.
242242 ClHC Cl HC
HCl ClHC ClHC 32242
HCl ClHC Cl HC 32242
(2.3) (2.4)
(2.1)
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Thermal Cracking of C2H4Cl2 from Oxychlorination of C2H4:
Selection of pathway to VCM (4)
Advantages:– Highly exothermic reaction (2.5) achieves a 95%
conversion to C2H4Cl2 in the presence of CuCl2 catalyst,
followed by pyrolysis step (2.4) as Reaction Path 3.
– Excellent candidate when cost of HCl is low
– Solution for specific problem denoted as Alternative 3. Disadvantages:
– Economics dependent on cost of HCl
(2.5) (2.4)
(2.6)
OH ClHC O HCl2 HC 22422 21
42 HCl ClHC ClHC 32242
OH ClHC O HCl HC 2322 21
42
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Balanced Process for Chlorination of Ethylene:
Selection of pathway to VCM (5)
Advantages:– Combination of Reaction Paths 3 and 4 - addresses Alternative
2.
– All Cl2 converted to VC
– No by-products!
(2.5) (2.3)
(2.7)
OH ClHC O HCl2 HC 22422 21
42 HCl2 ClHC2 ClHC2 32242 (2.4)
242242 ClHC Cl HC
OH ClHC2 O Cl HC2 2 32221
242
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Evaluation of Alternative Pathways
Chemical Cost (cents/ lb)
Ethylene 18
Acetylene 50
Chlorine 11
Vinyl chloride 22
Hydrogen chloride 18
Water 0
Oxygen (air) 0
Chemical Bulk Prices
Reaction Path is eliminated due its low selectivity. This leaves four alternative paths, to be compared first in
terms of Gross Profit.
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Computing Gross ProfitReaction path C2H4 + Cl2 = C2H3Cl + HCl
lb-mole 1 1 1 1
Molecular weight 28.05 70.91 62.50 36.46
lb 28.05 70.91 62.50 36.46
lb/ lb of vinyl chloride 0.449 1.134 1 0.583
cents/ lb 18 11 22 18
Gross profit = 22(1) + 18(0.583) - 18(0.449) - 11(1.134) = 11.94 cents/lb VC Reaction
Path Overall Reaction
Gross Profit
(cents/ lb of VC)
C2H2 + HCl = C2H3Cl -9.33
C2H4 +Cl2 = C2H3Cl + HCl 11.94
C2H4 + HCl + O2 = C2H3Cl + H2O 3.42
2C2H4 + Cl2 + O2 = 2C2H3Cl + H2O 7.68
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Raw MaterialsProcess Flowsheet?
C2H4, Cl2
Products
C2H3Cl, HCl
Cl2
113,400 lb/hr
C2H4
44,900 lb/hr
DirectChlorination
Pyrolysis
C2H4Cl2
HCl58,300 lb/hr
C2H3Cl100,000 lb/hr
HCl
C2H3ClC2H4Cl2
C2H4Cl2 C2H3Cl + HClC2H4 + Cl2 C2H4Cl2
Preliminary Flowsheet for Path
800 MM lb/year @ 330 days/y 100,000 lb/hr VC On the basis of this principal sink, the HCl sink and
reagent sources can be computed (each flow is 1,600 lbmol/h) Next step involves distributing the chemicals by matching sources and sinks.
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Distribute the chemicals
A conversion of 100% of the C2H4 is assumed in the chlorination
reaction.
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Distribute the chemicals
Only 60% of the C2H4Cl2 is converted to C2H3Cl with a
byproduct of HCl, according to Eqn. (2.4).
To satisfy the overall material balance, 158,300 lb/h of C2H4Cl must produce 100,000 lb/h of C2H3Cl and 58,300
lb/h of HCl.
But a 60% conversion only produces 60,000 lb/h of VC.
The additional C2H4Cl2 needed is computed by mass
balance to equal: [(1 - 0.6)/0.6] x 158,300 or 105,500 lb/h.
Its source is a recycle stream from the separation of C2H3Cl from unreacted C2H4Cl2, from a mixing operation,
inserted to combine the two sources, to give a total 263,800 lb/h.
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Distribute the chemicals The effluent stream from the pyrolysis operation is the source for
the C2H3Cl product, the HCl by-product, and the C2H4Cl2 recycle.
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Reactor pressure levels: – Chlorination reaction: 1.5 atm is recommended, to eliminate the
possibility of an air leak into the reactor containing ethylene. – Pyrolysis reaction: 26 atm is recommended by the B.F. Goodrich
patent (1963) without any justification. Since the reaction is irreversible, the elevated pressure does not adversely affect the conversion. Most likely, the patent recommends this pressure to reduce the size of the pyrolysis furnace, although the tube walls must be considerably thicker and many precautions are necessary for operation at elevated pressures.
– The pressure level is also an important consideration in selecting the separation operations, as will be discussed in the next synthesis step.
Distribute the chemicals
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The product of the chlorination reaction is nearly pure C2H4Cl2, and requires no purification.
In contrast, the pyrolysis reactor conversion is only 60%, and one or more separation operations are required to match the required purities in the C2H3Cl and HCl sinks.
One possible arrangement is given in the next slide. The data below explains the design decisions made.
Eliminate Differences in Composition
Boiling point (oC) Critical constants
Chemical 1 atm 4.8 atm 12 atm 26 atm Tc,C Pc, atm
HCl -84.8 -51.7 -26.2 0 51.4 82.1
C2H3Cl -13.8 33.1 70.5 110 159 56
C2H4Cl2 83.7 146 193 242 250 50
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Eliminate Differences in CompositionBoiling point (oC) Critical constants
Chemical 1 atm 4.8 atm 12 atm 26 atm Tc,C Pc, atm
HCl -84.8 -51.7 -26.2 0 51.4 82.1
C2H3Cl -13.8 33.1 70.5 110 159 56
C2H4Cl2 83.7 146 193 242 250 50
There may be other, possibly better alternative configurations, as discussed in Lecture 4 (Chapter 5).
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Eliminate differences in T, P and phase
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Integrate tasks (tasks unit operations)
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Assembly of synthesis tree
Reaction path
Distribution of chemicals
Separations
T, P and phase
changes
Task integration
Algorithmic methods are very effective for the synthesis, analysis and optimization of alternative flowsheets. These will be covered in Section B (Part II)
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Development of Base-case Design
Develop one or two of the more promising flowsheets from the synthesis tree for more detailed consideration.
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Example 2:
Manufacture of Tissue Plasmonigen Activator
Process Creation
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tPA is tissue plasminogen activatorA recombinant, therapeutic protein - comprised of 562 amino acids
Manufacture of tPA
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tPA activates plasminogen – to plasmin (an enzyme) plasmin dissolves fibrin formations that hold blood
clots in place blood flow is re-established once the clot blockage
dissolves important for patients with heart attacks
(myocardial infarction) or stroke
Manufacture of tPA
Pharmacology:
has been produced by Genentech (ActivaseTM) since 1986
sells for $2,000/100 mg dose 2003 – Patent protection expires Design objective – manufacture generic form of
tPA to sell for $200/dose
Business Strategy:
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Process Synthesis Problem
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Identify Reaction Paths – with help from the Biochemist
1. Mammalian Cells
tPA-DNA sequence + CHO cells selected high expressing PA-CHO cells (1)
(1-10 mg from (106 cells) (CHO cells with human melanoma tPA-DNA inserted
cells) in their genomes) Selected tPA-CHO cells (“founder cells”) amplified to yield about 106 cells/mL – during R&D stage. These cells are frozen into 1-mL aliquots at - 70C.
Eliminate differences in molecular types
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Prepared in laboratory – stored in 1 mL aliquots at - 70°C
Used as inoculum for the bio-reaction:
tPA-CHO cells + HyQ PF-CHO media + O2 Increased cell nos. (2)
0.39106 cells/mL-day50 pg tPA/cell-day0.210-12 mol O2/cell-hr
Rates from Genentech patent (1988)
As tPA-CHO cells reproduce, tPA secretes into liquid media solution.
Eliminate differences in molecular types
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Project cost of chemicals produced or sold
Chemical Kg/Kg tPA Cost, $/Kg
tPA 1 2,000,000
HyQ PF CHO powder media
287.2 233
Water for injection (WFI)
2,228 0.12+
Air 46.8 1,742
CO2 3.7 1,447
tPA-CHO cells - *
$200/100 mg dose+ $0.45/gal = $450/1,000 gal* Not included in gross profit estimate – related to cost of research, an operating cost.
Computing Gross Profit
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Gross Profit = 2,000,000 – 287.2233 – 2,228 0.12 -3.7 1,447 – 46.8 1,742
= $1,846,000/Kg tPA
Computing Gross Profit
Does not include operating costs (cost of research and cost of utilities) and investment cost
- yet, high for a pharmaceutical - process synthesis proceeds at an accelerated pace
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Insert Reaction Operations into Flowsheet
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Distribute the chemicals
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tPA protein must be recovered from other proteins, cell debris, media, water, and gas emissions Proteins lose activity (denature) at temperatures above ~ 0C
Hence - entire separation process designed to operate at 4C, slightly above freezing point of water.
Eliminate Differences in Composition
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Eliminate Differences in Composition
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Eliminate differences in Temperature
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Integrate tasks (tasks unit operations)
Equipment items are selected – often combining operations into a single equipment item
Key decision – batchbatch or continuouscontinuous operation 80 Kg/yr tPA – batch mode Select equipment sizes to produce 1.6
Kg/batch i.e., 80/1.6 = 50 batch/yr To allow for separation losses, produce 2.24
Kg/batch in the cultivators Using 5,000 L vessel, 14 day/batch = cycle
time Hence, run two batch trains in parallel
each producing 25 batch/yr
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Task Integration – Reactor Section
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Task Integration – Separation Section
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tPA - Synthesis Tree
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Process Creation - Summary
Next week: Process Design Heuristics
Preliminary Database Creation– needed to provide data to support the design.
Experiments– often necessary to supply missing database items or
verify crucial data.
Preliminary Process Synthesis– top-down approach.– generates a “synthesis tree” of design alternatives.– illustrated by the synthesis of the VCM and tPA
processes. Development of Base-case Design
– focusing on the most promising alternative(s) from the synthesis tree.