Preventive and Remedial Preventive and Remedial Interventions for Children with Interventions for Children with
Reading Difficulties: Lessons from Reading Difficulties: Lessons from ResearchResearch
Dr. Joseph K. TorgesenDr. Joseph K. TorgesenFlorida State University and Florida State University and
The Florida Center for Reading ResearchThe Florida Center for Reading Research
Learning Disabilities Association, March, 2004Learning Disabilities Association, March, 2004
The top five myths about interventions for The top five myths about interventions for struggling readersstruggling readers
1. If a child is a “visual” learner, they should be taught to re1. If a child is a “visual” learner, they should be taught to read ad using a visual, not an auditory strategyusing a visual, not an auditory strategy
2. If a child has not learned “phonics” by the end of first grad2. If a child has not learned “phonics” by the end of first grade, e, they need to be taught to read in some other waythey need to be taught to read in some other way
3. Children who struggle with phonemic awareness, 3. Children who struggle with phonemic awareness, vocabulary, or phonics in kindergarten and first grade will vocabulary, or phonics in kindergarten and first grade will frequently “catch up” if given time.frequently “catch up” if given time.
4. We should take guidance from theories of “multiple 4. We should take guidance from theories of “multiple intelligences” or “learning styles” to help us adapt our intelligences” or “learning styles” to help us adapt our reading instruction for different childrenreading instruction for different children
5. A little quality time with an enthusiastic volunteer tutor ca5. A little quality time with an enthusiastic volunteer tutor can n solve most children’s reading problemssolve most children’s reading problems
The consensus view of most important The consensus view of most important instructional features for interventionsinstructional features for interventions
Interventions are more effective when they:Interventions are more effective when they:Provide Provide systematicsystematic and and explicitexplicit instruction on whatever instruction on whatever component skills are deficient: phonemic awareness, phonics, component skills are deficient: phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, reading comprehension strategiesfluency, vocabulary, reading comprehension strategies
Provide a significant increase in Provide a significant increase in intensityintensity of instructionof instruction
Provide ample opportunities for guided practice of new skillsProvide ample opportunities for guided practice of new skills
Provide systematic cueing of appropriate strategies in contextProvide systematic cueing of appropriate strategies in context
Provide appropriate levels of scaffolding as children learn Provide appropriate levels of scaffolding as children learn to apply new skillsto apply new skills
Two kinds of scaffolding are importantTwo kinds of scaffolding are important
Programmatic ScaffoldingProgrammatic ScaffoldingThe The programprogram of instruction is carefully sequenced so that of instruction is carefully sequenced so that students are explicitly taught the skills and knowledge they students are explicitly taught the skills and knowledge they need for each new task they are asked to performneed for each new task they are asked to perform
Oral blending skills before blending printed wordsOral blending skills before blending printed words
Awareness of phonemes before learning how they are Awareness of phonemes before learning how they are represented in printrepresented in print
GraphemeGrapheme--phoneme knowledge before decodingphoneme knowledge before decoding
Vocabulary instruction before reading for meaningVocabulary instruction before reading for meaning
Strategies for oral language comprehension that support Strategies for oral language comprehension that support reading comprehensionreading comprehension
Two kinds of scaffolding are importantTwo kinds of scaffolding are important
Responsive ScaffoldingResponsive ScaffoldingAfter an error, or inadequate response, the teacher provides After an error, or inadequate response, the teacher provides responsive support to assist the child in making a more responsive support to assist the child in making a more adequate, or correct responseadequate, or correct response
Through appropriate questioning or provision of information, Through appropriate questioning or provision of information, the teacher supports the child in doing a task they cannot the teacher supports the child in doing a task they cannot immediately do on their ownimmediately do on their own
Teaching children to identify the first phoneme in words
After telling child the names of the pictures, teacher says,”which one begins with /s/?” child chooses fan
“fan begins with /f/, which one begins with /s/? Child chooses can
“Listen, I’m going to say the names of the pictures very slowly- see which one begins with /s/ - “f-an, f-ire, c-an, s-ack” which one?
Two kinds of scaffolding are importantTwo kinds of scaffolding are important
Responsive ScaffoldingResponsive ScaffoldingWord reading error Word reading error –– “let’s check this word. Can you read “let’s check this word. Can you read it for me?it for me?Child reads “side”.Child reads “side”.Teacher says, “you’re right that the word begins with the Teacher says, “you’re right that the word begins with the /s/ sound. What letter do you see coming right after the /s/ sound. What letter do you see coming right after the ssin this word?”in this word?”Child says “l”Child says “l”Teacher says, “what sound does “l” make?”Teacher says, “what sound does “l” make?”Child says “/l/”Child says “/l/”Teacher says, “if you say the /l/ sound right after /s/ in this Teacher says, “if you say the /l/ sound right after /s/ in this word, what word does that make?”word, what word does that make?”
Interventions should be organized in tiersInterventions should be organized in tiers
Layers of intervention Layers of intervention responding to student needsresponding to student needs
Each tier provides more Each tier provides more intensive and supportive intensive and supportive interventionintervention
Aimed at preventing reading Aimed at preventing reading disabilitiesdisabilities
TIER I
TIER II
TIERIII
TIER I: Core class instructionTIER I: Core class instruction
TIER I is comprised of three TIER I is comprised of three elementselements
Core reading programCore reading program
Benchmark testing of Benchmark testing of students to determine students to determine instructional needs at least instructional needs at least three times a yearthree times a year
TIER I
TIER II
TIERIII
Ongoing professional Ongoing professional developmentdevelopment
TIER I: CORE CLASS INSTRUCTION TIER I: CORE CLASS INSTRUCTION (cont’d)(cont’d)
Focus
Program
Interventionist
Setting
Grouping
Time
Assessment
For all students in K through 3
Scientific-based reading instruction and curriculum emphasizing the five critical elements of beginning reading
General education teacher
General education classroom
Multiple grouping formats to meet student needs
90 minutes per day or more
Benchmark assessment at beginning, middle, and end of the academic year
TIER II: Supplemental instructionTIER II: Supplemental instruction
Tier II is smallTier II is small--group group supplemental instruction supplemental instruction in addition to the time in addition to the time allotted for core reading allotted for core reading instruction.instruction.TIER I
TIERIII
TIER IITIER II
Tier II includes Tier II includes pprograms, strategies, rograms, strategies, and procedures and procedures designed and employed designed and employed to to supplement, enhance, supplement, enhance, and support and support Tier I.Tier I.
TIER II: SUPPLEMENTAL TIER II: SUPPLEMENTAL INSTRUCTION (cont’d)INSTRUCTION (cont’d)
Focus
Program
Setting
Grouping
Time
Assessment
For students identified with marked reading difficulties, and who have not responded to Tier I efforts
Personnel determined by the school (e.g., a classroom teacher, a specialized reading teacher, an external interventionist)
Appropriate setting designated by the school;may be within or outside of the classroom
Homogeneous small group instruction (1:3, 1:4, or 1:5)
Minimum of 30 minutes per day in small group in addition to90 minutes of core reading instruction
Progress monitoring twice a month on target skill to ensure adequate progress and learning
Specialized, scientifically based reading program(s) emphasizing the five critical elements of beginning reading
Interventionist
TIER III: Intensive interventionTIER III: Intensive intervention
Tier III is intensive, Tier III is intensive, strategic, supplemental strategic, supplemental instruction specifically instruction specifically designed and designed and customized smallcustomized small--group group or 1:1 reading instruction or 1:1 reading instruction that is extended beyond that is extended beyond the time allocated for the time allocated for Tier I and Tier II.Tier I and Tier II.
TIERIII
TIER III
Program
Focus
Interventionist
Setting
Grouping
Time
Assessment
For students with marked difficulties in reading or reading disabilities and who have not responded adequately to Tier I and Tier II efforts
Appropriate setting designated by the school
Homogeneous small group instruction (1:1- 1:3)
Minimum of two 30-minute sessions per day in small group or 1:1 in addition to 90 minutes of core reading instruction. Progress monitoring twice a month on target skills to ensure adequate progress and learning
Sustained, intensive, scientifically based reading program(s) emphasizing the critical elements of reading for students with reading difficulties/disabilities
Personnel determined by the school (e.g., a classroom teacher, a specialized reading teacher, an external interventionist)
TIER III: INTENSIVE INTERVENTION TIER III: INTENSIVE INTERVENTION (cont’d)(cont’d)
What do we know about the success of What do we know about the success of our most effective interventions in our most effective interventions in
preventing and preventing and remediatingremediating reading reading difficulties? difficulties?
Intervention studies should be differentiated by the Intervention studies should be differentiated by the age of students included in the studyage of students included in the study
Prevention studiesPrevention studies –– intervention begins before intervention begins before children have experienced a prolonged period of children have experienced a prolonged period of failure in learning to readfailure in learning to read
Remediation studiesRemediation studies –– intervention occurs after intervention occurs after children have experienced difficulties in learning to children have experienced difficulties in learning to read for several years.read for several years.
Studies of PreventionStudies of Prevention
How to measure successful prevention?How to measure successful prevention?
Meets standards on measure of reading Meets standards on measure of reading comprehension at end of third gradecomprehension at end of third grade
Achieves Oral Reading Rate of more than 40 Achieves Oral Reading Rate of more than 40 correct words per minute by end of first gradecorrect words per minute by end of first grade
Achieves score above the 30Achieves score above the 30thth percentile on percentile on measures of word reading ability by end of first measures of word reading ability by end of first or second gradeor second grade
We do not yet know how to prevent reading difficulties in “all” children
Percent of children scoring below the 30th percentile
Study Amt. of instruction % delayed overall %
Foorman 174 hrs.- classroom 35% 6%
Felton 340 hrs. - groups of 8 32% 5%
Vellutino 35- 65 hrs. 1:1 tutoring 46% 7%
Torgesen 88 hrs. 1:1 tutoring 30% 4%
Torgesen 80 hrs. 1:3 tutoring 11% 2%
Torgesen 91 hrs. 1:3 or 1:5 tutoring 8% 1.6%
Mathes 80 hrs. 1:3 tutoring 1% .02%
We do not yet know how to prevent reading difficulties in “all” children
Percent of children scoring below the 30th percentile
Study Amt. of instruction % delayed overall %
Foorman 174 hrs.- classroom 35% 6%
Felton 340 hrs. - groups of 8 32% 5%
Vellutino 35- 65 hrs. 1:1 tutoring 46% 7%
Torgesen 88 hrs. 1:1 tutoring 30% 4%
Torgesen 80 hrs. 1:3 tutoring 11% 2%
Torgesen 91 hrs. 1:3 or 1:5 tutoring 8% 1.6%
Mathes 80 hrs. 1:3 tutoring 1% .02%
These are likely to be overestimates of These are likely to be overestimates of our success in preventing reading our success in preventing reading
difficulties in all childrendifficulties in all children
46% of sample had broad vocabulary scores below 46% of sample had broad vocabulary scores below the 30the 30thth percentilepercentile
At end of second grade, although word level skills At end of second grade, although word level skills stayed strong (1.6% below 30stayed strong (1.6% below 30thth), estimate 4.1% ), estimate 4.1% failure rate for silent reading comprehensionfailure rate for silent reading comprehension
Problem with comprehension will become more Problem with comprehension will become more pronounced as comprehension tests become more pronounced as comprehension tests become more complexcomplex
Evidence from one school that we Evidence from one school that we cancan do do substantially better than ever beforesubstantially better than ever before
School Characteristics:School Characteristics:70% Free and Reduced Lunch (going up each year)70% Free and Reduced Lunch (going up each year)
65% minority (mostly African65% minority (mostly African--American)American)
Elements of Curriculum Change:Elements of Curriculum Change:Movement to a more balanced reading curriculum beginning Movement to a more balanced reading curriculum beginning in 1994in 1994--1995 school year (incomplete implementation) for K1995 school year (incomplete implementation) for K--22Improved implementation in 1995Improved implementation in 1995--19961996
Implementation in Fall of 1996 of screening and more Implementation in Fall of 1996 of screening and more intensive small group instruction for atintensive small group instruction for at--risk studentsrisk students
Hartsfield Elementary Progress over five years
Proportion falling below the 25th percentile in word reading ability at the end of first grade 10
20
3031.8
20.4
10.96.7
3.7
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999Average Percentile 48.9 55.2 61.4 73.5 81.7for entire grade (n=105)
Screening at beginning of first grade, with extra instruction for those in bottom 30-40%
30Proportion falling below the 25th Percentile
20
10
Proportion falling below the 25th Percentile 10
20
30
31.8
20.4
10.96.7
3.7
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999Average Percentile 48.9 55.2 61.4 73.5 81.7
14.59.0
5.4 2.4
Hartsfield Elementary Progress over five years
1996 1997 1998 1999Average Percentile 58.2 67.1 74.1 81.5
FCAT Performance in Spring, 2003FCAT Performance in Spring, 2003
10
15
20
25
30
35
40Level 2Level 1
Hartsfield Elem. State Average
Why the disparity between early wordWhy the disparity between early word--level outcomes and later comprehension level outcomes and later comprehension
of complex texts?of complex texts?
Accelerating introduction of complex and unfamiliar Accelerating introduction of complex and unfamiliar words in text places stress on children with remaining words in text places stress on children with remaining dysfluenciesdysfluencies in word level processesin word level processes
Demands of vocabulary in complex text at third grade Demands of vocabulary in complex text at third grade and higher place stress on the remaining SES and higher place stress on the remaining SES related “vocabulary gap” related “vocabulary gap”
More complex text demands reading comprehension More complex text demands reading comprehension strategies and higher level thinking and reasoning strategies and higher level thinking and reasoning skills that remain “deficient” in many childrenskills that remain “deficient” in many children
On the one hand….On the one hand….
Hartsfield Hartsfield might be criticized for placing too much might be criticized for placing too much emphasis on phonemic awareness, phonics, and emphasis on phonemic awareness, phonics, and fluency and not enough emphasis on comprehensionfluency and not enough emphasis on comprehension
But on the other hand….But on the other hand….
We could recognize their success in teaching all We could recognize their success in teaching all children critical beginning reading skills, and work children critical beginning reading skills, and work with them to add in more powerful instruction in with them to add in more powerful instruction in vocabulary and comprehension strategiesvocabulary and comprehension strategies
This brings us to the first important gap This brings us to the first important gap in our knowledge related to the in our knowledge related to the
prevention of reading difficulties in all prevention of reading difficulties in all childrenchildren
We do not yet understand the We do not yet understand the conditions that need to be in place to conditions that need to be in place to “close the gap” for children who enter “close the gap” for children who enter school seriously behind in vocabulary school seriously behind in vocabulary
development .development .
Bringing Bringing Words to LifeWords to Life
Isabel BeckIsabel Beck
M. M. McKeownMcKeown
L. L. KucanKucan
Guilford PressGuilford Press
“robust “robust vocabulary vocabulary instruction”instruction”
What do we know about the What do we know about the effectiveness of most special effectiveness of most special education interventions for education interventions for
children with reading difficulties in children with reading difficulties in third grade and later?third grade and later?
We know that it tends to We know that it tends to stabilize stabilize the relative deficit in reading skill the relative deficit in reading skill
rather than rather than remediateremediate it.it.
Change in Reading Skill for Children with Reading Disabilities who Experience Growth in Reading of .04 Standard
Deviations a Year
020406080
100120
Grade3
Grad
e4 G
rade5
Grad
e6
Grade Level
Stan
dard
Sco
re in
R
eadi
ng AverageReadersDisabledReaders
70 71.8
“The ultimate test of the value of “The ultimate test of the value of special education is that, once special education is that, once identified, identified, children close the gap with children close the gap with their peerstheir peers.” .” (President’s commission, 2002)(President’s commission, 2002)
Examine outcomes from five clinical or experimental Examine outcomes from five clinical or experimental studies of remedial interventions with children from studies of remedial interventions with children from 1010--12 years of age experiencing reading difficulties12 years of age experiencing reading difficulties
OneOne sample of mildly impaired children with beginning word sample of mildly impaired children with beginning word level skills around the 30th percentile.level skills around the 30th percentile.
TwoTwo samples of moderately disabled children with samples of moderately disabled children with beginning word level skills around the 10th percentilebeginning word level skills around the 10th percentile
TwoTwo samples of severely disabled children with beginning samples of severely disabled children with beginning word level skills around the 2nd percentileword level skills around the 2nd percentile
Instructional Effectiveness Measured by Instructional Effectiveness Measured by Outcomes in Four AreasOutcomes in Four Areas
Phonemic Decoding AccuracyPhonemic Decoding Accuracy ---- skill at using soundskill at using sound--letter letter relationships to decode novel wordsrelationships to decode novel words
Text reading accuracyText reading accuracy ---- Accuracy with which individual words Accuracy with which individual words are identified in textare identified in text
Text reading fluencyText reading fluency ---- speed of oral reading of connected speed of oral reading of connected texttext
Reading ComprehensionReading Comprehension ---- accuracy with which meaning is accuracy with which meaning is constructed during readingconstructed during reading
Outcomes measured in standard scores.Outcomes measured in standard scores. An improvement in standard An improvement in standard score means that a child is improving his/her reading skills comscore means that a child is improving his/her reading skills compared to pared to average readers. On all the measures used here, 100 is averageaverage readers. On all the measures used here, 100 is average..
A Brief Description of the Spell/Read P.A.T. programA Brief Description of the Spell/Read P.A.T. program
Distribution of activities in a typical 70 minute session:Distribution of activities in a typical 70 minute session:
40 minutes 40 minutes ---- Phonemic awareness/phonicsPhonemic awareness/phonics
20 minutes 20 minutes ---- shared readingshared reading
7 minutes 7 minutes ---- writing about what was readwriting about what was read
3 minutes 3 minutes ---- wrap upwrap up
Systematic instruction in phonic elements beginning Systematic instruction in phonic elements beginning with mastery of 44 phonemes at single syllable level with mastery of 44 phonemes at single syllable level through multithrough multi--syllable strategies. Fluency oriented syllable strategies. Fluency oriented practice from beginning of instruction. Discussion and practice from beginning of instruction. Discussion and writing to enhance comprehension.writing to enhance comprehension.
A Clinical Sample of 48 Students aged 8A Clinical Sample of 48 Students aged 8--1616
Middle and upperMiddle and upper--middle class studentsmiddle class students
Mean Age 11 yearsMean Age 11 years
79% White, 67% Male79% White, 67% Male
Received 45Received 45--80 hours (mean=60) hours of instruction80 hours (mean=60) hours of instruction
Intervention provided in groups of 2Intervention provided in groups of 2--44
Remedial Method: Spell Read P.A.T.Remedial Method: Spell Read P.A.T.
Mean beginning Word Identification Score = 92 Mean beginning Word Identification Score = 92
Children with word level skills around the 30th percentileChildren with word level skills around the 30th percentile
Outcomes from 60 Hours of Small Group Intervention with upper middle class students--Spell Read
99
108
114 113
70
80
100
Sta
ndar
d S
core
110
30%939090
86
71
Reading Comp.
Text Reading
Rate
Word Attack
Text Reading Accuracy
A Middle School Sample of 14 Students aged 11A Middle School Sample of 14 Students aged 11--1414
Working class studentsWorking class students
Mean Age 12 yearsMean Age 12 years
39% White, 64% Male39% White, 64% Male
Received 37Received 37--58 hours (mean=51.4) hours of 58 hours (mean=51.4) hours of instructioninstruction
Intervention provided in groups of 2Intervention provided in groups of 2--44
Remedial Method: Spell Read P.A.T.Remedial Method: Spell Read P.A.T.
Mean Word Identification Score = 80Mean Word Identification Score = 80
Children with word level skills around the 10 percentileChildren with word level skills around the 10 percentile
Outcomes from 50 Hours of Small Group Intervention with working class students--Spell Read
78
94
102
90
70
80
100
110
Sta
ndar
d S
core
30%9087
82 82
69
Reading Comp.
Text Reading
Rate
Word Attack
Text Reading Accuracy
A SchoolA School--based, treatment control study of 40 studentsbased, treatment control study of 40 students
60% Free and reduced lunch 60% Free and reduced lunch
Mean Age 12 years (range 11Mean Age 12 years (range 11--14)14)
45% White, 45% Black, 10% other45% White, 45% Black, 10% other
53% in special education53% in special education
Received 94Received 94--108 hours (mean=100) hours of instruction108 hours (mean=100) hours of instruction
Intervention provided in groups of 4Intervention provided in groups of 4--55
Remedial Methods:Remedial Methods:
Mean Word Identification Score = 83Mean Word Identification Score = 83
Children begin with word level skills around 10th percentile
Spell Read P.A.T.Spell Read P.A.T.
Children begin with word level skills around 10th percentile
Outcomes from 100 Hours of Small Group Intervention--Spell Read
79
96
111
96
70
80
100
110
Sta
ndar
d S
core
30%90
88
77 77
65
Reading Comp.
Text Reading
Rate
Word Attack
Text Reading Accuracy
A study of intensive, highly skilled intervention with 60 A study of intensive, highly skilled intervention with 60 children who had severe reading disabilitieschildren who had severe reading disabilities
Children were between 8 and 10 years of ageChildren were between 8 and 10 years of age
Had been receiving special education services for an average of Had been receiving special education services for an average of 16 months16 months
Nominated as worst readers: at least 1.5 S.D’s below grade levelNominated as worst readers: at least 1.5 S.D’s below grade level
Average Word Attack=69, Word Identification=69, Verbal IQ=93Average Word Attack=69, Word Identification=69, Verbal IQ=93
Randomly assigned to two instructional conditions that both taugRandomly assigned to two instructional conditions that both taught ht “phonics” explicitly, but used different procedures with differe“phonics” explicitly, but used different procedures with different emphasisnt emphasis
Children in both conditions received 67.5 hours of oneChildren in both conditions received 67.5 hours of one--onon--one instruction, one instruction, 2 hours a day for 8 weeks2 hours a day for 8 weeks
Children were followed for two years after the intervention was Children were followed for two years after the intervention was completedcompleted
Outcomes from 67.5 Hours of Intensive LIPS Intervention
100
75
86
96
89
70
80
Sta
ndar
d S
core
90
Word Attack
Text Reading Accuracy
Reading Comp.
Text Reading
Rate
68
7473 71
83
91 30%
Oral Reading Fluency was much improved on passages for which level of difficulty remained constant
Absolute change in rate from pretest to 2-year follow-up.
Most difficult passage
Prestest -- 38 WPM, 10 errors
Posttest -- 101 WMP, 2 errors
Next most difficult passage
Pretest -- 42 WPM, 6 errors
Posttest -- 104 WPM, 1 error
Growth in Total Reading Skill Before, During, and Following Intensive Intervention
Sta
ndar
d S
core
95
90
85LIPS
EP80
75
P-Pretest Pre Post 1 year 2 year
Interval in Months Between Measurements
FollowFollow--up study of intensive intervention with 60 children up study of intensive intervention with 60 children who have severe reading disabilities who have severe reading disabilities -- preliminary resultspreliminary results
Children were between 8 and 10 years of ageChildren were between 8 and 10 years of age
All are currently receiving or were identified for special educaAll are currently receiving or were identified for special education servicestion services
Nominated as worst readers: at least 1.5 S.D’s below grade levelNominated as worst readers: at least 1.5 S.D’s below grade level
Average Word Attack= 72, Word Identification= 72, Verbal IQ=87Average Word Attack= 72, Word Identification= 72, Verbal IQ=87
Randomly assigned to two instructional conditions that both taugRandomly assigned to two instructional conditions that both taught ht “phonics” explicitly, but contained different emphasis on fluenc“phonics” explicitly, but contained different emphasis on fluency oriented y oriented practicepractice
Children in both conditions received 83 hours of oneChildren in both conditions received 83 hours of one--onon--one and 50 one and 50 hours of small group instruction, 2 hours a day for 16 weekhours of small group instruction, 2 hours a day for 16 week
Preliminary results for 45 children in both conditions combinedPreliminary results for 45 children in both conditions combined
Major differences between Accuracy and Accuracy Major differences between Accuracy and Accuracy + Fluency Groups+ Fluency Groups
Accuracy Accuracy + Fluency
First 33 Hrs. 1:1 LIPS LIPS
Next 50 Hrs. 1:1 LIPS 70% LIPS, 3O% Fluency
Next 50 Hrs. Sm. Grp. Extended LIPS Comprehension--V V
Comprehension V V Repeated reading practice
Accuracy Oriented with text and word drills
Text practice
Outcomes from 133 Hours of Intensive LIPS + Fluency+ Comprehension Intervention
87
96
85
70
80
100
Sta
ndar
d S
core 30%
90
7873
7376
72
Reading Comp.
Text Reading
Rate
Word Attack
Text Reading Accuracy
Summary and Conclusions:Summary and Conclusions:
1. For many older children with word level reading skills aroun1. For many older children with word level reading skills around the d the 30th percentile, a relatively brief (60hrs) dose of appropriate 30th percentile, a relatively brief (60hrs) dose of appropriate small small group instruction can bring their skills in phonemic decoding, tgroup instruction can bring their skills in phonemic decoding, text ext reading accuracy and fluency, and comprehension solidly into thereading accuracy and fluency, and comprehension solidly into theaverage range.average range.
2. For many older children with word level reading skills aroun2. For many older children with word level reading skills around the d the 10th percentile, a more substantial dose (100hrs) of appropriate10th percentile, a more substantial dose (100hrs) of appropriatesmall group instruction can bring their skills in phonemic decodsmall group instruction can bring their skills in phonemic decoding, ing, text reading accuracy, and reading comprehension solidly into thtext reading accuracy, and reading comprehension solidly into the e average range. Although the gap in reading fluency can be closedaverage range. Although the gap in reading fluency can be closedsomewhat, reading fluency is likely to remain substantially impasomewhat, reading fluency is likely to remain substantially impaired. ired.
3. For older children with word level reading skills around the3. For older children with word level reading skills around the 2nd 2nd percentile, intensive interventions can have a strong effect on percentile, intensive interventions can have a strong effect on phonemic decoding, text reading accuracy, and reading phonemic decoding, text reading accuracy, and reading comprehension, but they are likely to leave the fluency gap essecomprehension, but they are likely to leave the fluency gap essentially ntially unaffected.unaffected.
Disparity in outcomes for rate vs. accuracy in five remediation studies
70
80
90
100
Sta
ndar
d S
core
Accuracy
Rate
2nd 2nd 10th 10th 30th
Beginning level of Word Identification Skill
Our current hypothesis about the difficult fluency gapOur current hypothesis about the difficult fluency gap
Children who struggle initially in learning to read miss out on Children who struggle initially in learning to read miss out on many many hundreds of thousands of opportunities to learn to recognize indhundreds of thousands of opportunities to learn to recognize individual ividual words because they read inaccurately and they don’t read very muwords because they read inaccurately and they don’t read very much.ch.
By the time they reach 3By the time they reach 3--4 grade, their “sight word vocabulary” is 4 grade, their “sight word vocabulary” is severely restricted compared to good readers of their same ageseverely restricted compared to good readers of their same age
After they become more accurate readers, there is still a huge gAfter they become more accurate readers, there is still a huge gap in ap in the number of words they can recognize by sight. They can’t catthe number of words they can recognize by sight. They can’t catch up ch up with their peers because 4with their peers because 4thth and 5and 5thth grade good readers are continuing grade good readers are continuing to add words to their sight vocabulary at a very fast rate.to add words to their sight vocabulary at a very fast rate.
Projected growth in “sight vocabulary” of normal readers and disabled children before and after remediation
Normal
InterventionSiz
e of
“sig
ht v
ocab
ular
y
Dyslexic
2nd Year follow-up
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Grade in School
Our current hypothesis about the difficult fluency gapOur current hypothesis about the difficult fluency gap
Children who struggle initially in learning to read miss out on Children who struggle initially in learning to read miss out on many many hundreds of thousands of opportunities to learn to recognize indhundreds of thousands of opportunities to learn to recognize individual ividual words because they read inaccurately and they don’t read very muwords because they read inaccurately and they don’t read very much.ch.
By the time they reach 3By the time they reach 3--4 grade, their sight word vocabulary is 4 grade, their sight word vocabulary is severely restricted compared to good readers of their same ageseverely restricted compared to good readers of their same age
After they become more accurate readers, there is still a huge gAfter they become more accurate readers, there is still a huge gap in ap in the number of words they can recognize by sight. They can’t catthe number of words they can recognize by sight. They can’t catch up ch up with their peers because 4with their peers because 4thth and 5and 5thth grade good readers are continuing grade good readers are continuing to add words to their sight vocabulary at a very fast rate.to add words to their sight vocabulary at a very fast rate.
A very important factor in determining how fluently a child willA very important factor in determining how fluently a child will read a read a passage involves the proportion of words in the passage the chilpassage involves the proportion of words in the passage the child can d can recognize by sightrecognize by sight
These are iNTirEStinG and cHallinGinGtimes for anyone whose pRoFEshuNleresponsibilities are rEelaTed in any way to liTiRucY outcomes among school cHilDRun. For, in spite of all our new NaWLEGe about rEeDiNg and reading iNstRukshun, there is a wiDE-SpReDconcern that public EdgUkAshuN is not as eFfEktIve as it sHood be in tEecHiNg all children to read.
Our current hypothesis about the difficult fluency gapOur current hypothesis about the difficult fluency gap
Children who struggle initially in learning to read miss out on Children who struggle initially in learning to read miss out on many many hundreds of thousands of opportunities to learn to recognize indhundreds of thousands of opportunities to learn to recognize individual ividual words because they read inaccurately and they don’t read very muwords because they read inaccurately and they don’t read very much.ch.
By the time they reach 3By the time they reach 3--4 grade, their sight word vocabulary is 4 grade, their sight word vocabulary is severely restricted compared to good readers of their same ageseverely restricted compared to good readers of their same age
After they become more accurate readers, there is still a huge gAfter they become more accurate readers, there is still a huge gap in ap in the number of words they can recognize by sight. They can’t catthe number of words they can recognize by sight. They can’t catch up ch up with their peers because 4with their peers because 4thth and 5and 5thth grade good readers are continuing grade good readers are continuing to add words to their sight vocabulary at a very fast rate.to add words to their sight vocabulary at a very fast rate.
A very important factor in determining how fluently a child willA very important factor in determining how fluently a child will read a read a passage involves the proportion of words in the passage the chilpassage involves the proportion of words in the passage the child can d can recognize by sightrecognize by sight
Unless poor readers who have received strong remediation can addUnless poor readers who have received strong remediation can addwords to their “sight vocabulary” at a words to their “sight vocabulary” at a fasterfaster rate than their peers, the rate than their peers, the “fluency gap” will continue“fluency gap” will continue
What happens to accuracy and fluency of reading What happens to accuracy and fluency of reading scores when children receive powerful preventive scores when children receive powerful preventive
instruction?instruction?
Disparity in outcomes for rate vs. accuracy in remediation and prevention studies
70
80
90
100
Sta
ndar
d S
core
4th grade 2nd
gradeAccuracy
Rate
2nd 2nd 10th 10th Prev 1 Prev 2 30th
Beginning level of Word Identification Skill
Summary and qualification:Summary and qualification:After problems with reading accuracy have been After problems with reading accuracy have been substantiallysubstantially remediatedremediated through intensive through intensive instruction, children remaininstruction, children remain dysfluentdysfluent readers readers relative to age peers primarily because there are relative to age peers primarily because there are too many wordstoo many words in grade level passages that they in grade level passages that they still cannot recognize as sight wordsstill cannot recognize as sight words
1. Their early practice deficits leave them just ‘too many 1. Their early practice deficits leave them just ‘too many words behind” in the growth of their sight vocabularywords behind” in the growth of their sight vocabulary
2. Some dyslexic children may also have special 2. Some dyslexic children may also have special difficulties acquiring sight words for neurobiological difficulties acquiring sight words for neurobiological reasonsreasons
The second important gap in our The second important gap in our knowledge related to the instruction for knowledge related to the instruction for
children with reading difficultieschildren with reading difficulties
We do not yet understand the We do not yet understand the conditions that need to be in place to conditions that need to be in place to “close the gap” in reading fluency for “close the gap” in reading fluency for children who reach late elementary children who reach late elementary
school with school with seriousserious word level word level reading difficultiesreading difficulties
Thank Thank YouYou
www.fcrr.orgwww.fcrr.org“the science of reading”“the science of reading”