“I think metaphorically of qualitative research as an intricate fabric composed of minute threads, many colors, different textures, and various blends of material. The fabric is not explained easily or simply”
-John W. Creswelll
Qualitative vs. Quantitative
• Basic Criticisms of Quantitative Research– Preoccupied with control– Reductionist– Top down– Misses big picture
• Basic Criticisms of Qualitative Research– Subjective– Biased– Results not generalizable– Unable to identify causal relationships
What is Qualitative Research?
• Many researchers are more interested in the quality and meaning of a particular activity
• Research studies that investigate the quality of relationships, activities, situations, or materials are frequently referred to as Qualitative Research.
• There is a greater emphasis on holistic description.
General Characteristics of Qualitative Research
• Five general features of Qualitative Research:1) The natural setting is a direct source and key
element
2) Collection is in the form of words or pictures
3) Researchers are concerned with how things occur
4) Construction of a picture while data is being collected vs. a priori hypotheses.
5) Special interest in the participants’ thoughts
Philosophical Assumptions
• Differences between the paradigms of Qualitative vs. Quantitative are expressed in how one approaches an investigation.
• Positivism and post-positivism– What are they?– How do they view reality?
• Critical theory and Constructivism– What are they?– How do they view reality?
Philosophical Assumptions• Ontology
– What is the nature or reality?• Epistemology
– What is relationship between the researcher and that which is being researched?
• Axiology– What is the role of values?
• Rhetorical– What is the language of research?
• Methodological– What is the process of research?
• Do these differ for qualitative and quantitative researchers?
Paradigms
• Positivism– Deterministic– Reductionism– Empirical observation and measurement
• Methods– Experimental, manipulative, verification
Paradigms (Cont.)
• Postpositivism– Theory testing– Probabilistic– Know reality imperfectly– Replication
• Methods– Experimental, surveys, causal-comparative,
observational, interviews
Paradigms (Cont.)
• Critical theory– Political– Empowerment– Collaborative– Change-oriented– Social justice
• Methods– Participatory action research
Paradigms (cont.)
• Constructivism– Understanding– Multiple participant meanings– Social construction– Theory generation
• Methods– Grounded theory, case studies, narrative
research
Steps in Qualitative Research
• All qualitative studies have a distinct starting and ending point.
• The steps are as follows (in some cases): – Identification of the phenomenon to be studied – Identification of the participants in the study (purposive sample
collecting)– Generation of hypotheses– Data collection (continual observance)– Data analysis– Interpretation/Conclusions
Approaches to Qualitative Research
• Five traditions (Creswell, 1998) + 1– Biographical Study– Phenomenological Study– Grounded Theory Study– Ethnography– Case Study
– Action Research
Biography
• A study of an individual and her or his experiences– As told to the researcher– As found in documents– As written by the individual
• Biography– Written by someone other than the individual
• Autobiography– Written by the individual
Phenomenological Study
• A person’s construction of the meaning of a concept (phenomenon)
• Attempts to understand participants’ perspectives and views of social realities
• Attempt to understand what a specific experience is like by describing it as found in concrete situations as it appears to people living it.
• The researcher often has personal experience with the phenomenon
• Example of topics – “being left out”, “falling asleep”, “being afraid of the dark”
Grounded Theory
• A general research method – Generate or discover theory
• That is “grounded” in data that is systematically collected and analyzed.
– Recursive process of sampling and analysis– Theory is developed during the course of the
study.
Ethnography
• A description and interpretation of a cultural or social group.– Examines a group’s
• Patterns of behavior• Customs• Ways of Life
– Participant Observation
Case Study
• Develops an in-depth analysis of a single case or multiple cases.
• Much can be learned from study one individual, one classroom, one school, or one school district.– Types
• Intrinsic– Interested in understanding a specific case
• Instrumental– Interested in understanding something larger than the case.
» e.g., study of a teacher who uses phonics
• Multiple case study– Additional cases are added.
» Why?
Action Research
• Conducted by one or more individuals for the purpose of solving a problem.
• Typically motivated by an immediate problem.• Types
– Practical Action Research• Primary purpose is to improve practice.
– Participatory Action Research• Primary goal is empower individuals and groups to bring
about social change.
Qualitative Sampling
– Qualitative research uses sampling strategies that produce samples that are predominantly small and non random.
– Keeps in line with the emphasis on in-depth description of participants’ perspectives and context.
– Purposive sampling ensures that the “best” participants are included.
Purposive Sampling
• Researcher identifies a research topic– Then selects a sample of individuals who will
provide relevant information.– When a number of criteria are used the
technique is called criterion purposive sampling.
Sampling
• Purposive– High school teachers were asked to select
students who, in their opinion, had the greatest likelihood of academic failure.
• Purposive Criterion Sampling– African American males who were age 20 to
25, high school graduates, and married were the identified and interviewed for this study.
Group Discussion
• Name a general topic in which qualitative researchers might conduct research.
• Name at least four demographic variables that might be of interest to a researcher of this topic.
Sampling (cont.)
• In Quantitative terms purposive samples are non-probability samples– Sampling methods that do not have random sampling
at any stage of sample selection• Convenience sampling
– Includes whoever is available
• Purposive sampling (a.k.a.) judgmental sampling– Used often for qualitative studies
– In a quantitative framework what problem does this create in the interpretation of the results?
– How would a qualitative researcher respond to this critique?
Sampling in Qualitative Research
• Purposive Sampling Techniques:– Typical Sample– Extreme or Deviant Case
• Unusual or exceptional.
– Homogenous sampling• No diversity. Sample has similar characteristics
– Snowball sampling• selecting few participants who identify other good participants
– Confirming Sample• Selected to confirm or disconfirm preliminary findings.
– Maximal Variation• Sample as diverse as possible.
Sample size
• Qualitative studies are generally smaller.– Why?
• What criteria is used by some qualitative researchers to determine when to stop sampling?– Explain how it works.
Generalization in Qualitative Research
• A generalization is usually thought of as a statement or claim that applies to more than one individual, group, or situation.
• The value of a generalization is that it allows us to have expectations about the future.
• A limitation of Qualitative Research is that there is seldom justification for generalizing the findings of a particular study.– Why?– Do quantitative studies differ?
• Why? Why not?