Download - Ossuário e sepultamento de Jesus e Tiago
7/28/2019 Ossuário e sepultamento de Jesus e Tiago
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/ossuario-e-sepultamento-de-jesus-e-tiago 1/35
Ossuaries and the Burials of Jesus and JamesAuthor(s): Jodi MagnessReviewed work(s):Source: Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 124, No. 1 (Spring, 2005), pp. 121-154Published by: The Society of Biblical LiteratureStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/30040993 .
Accessed: 21/12/2011 08:04
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].
The Society of Biblical Literature is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to
Journal of Biblical Literature.
http://www.jstor.org
7/28/2019 Ossuário e sepultamento de Jesus e Tiago
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/ossuario-e-sepultamento-de-jesus-e-tiago 2/35
JBL 124/1 (2005) 121-154
OSSUARIES AND THE BURIALSOF JESUS AND JAMES
JODI MAGNESS
Universityf NorthCarolinatChapelHill,ChapelHill,NC27599
In November 2002 the existence of a sensational archaeological artifact
was announced to the world: a small stone box called an ossuary inscribed
"James,son of Joseph, brother of Jesus."' Before this most people had never
heard of an ossuary,and many probablystill do not know what ossuaries are.
But even within the small circle of scholarswho specialize in the history and
archaeologyof Palestine in the late Second Temple period, the reasonsfor the
sudden appearanceand relativelyshortperiod of popularityof ossuaries(from
thelate
firstcentury B.C.E. o
mid-to-latethird century
C.E.)remain poorly
understood.
In the firstpartof this articleI reviewthe archaeologicalevidence forJew-
ish tombs and burialcustoms in the late Second Temple period, focusing espe-
ciallyon Jerusalem.Onlythe wealthiermembers of Jewishsociety could afford
rock-cut tombs, which belonged to families and were used over the course of
severalgenerations.The poorer classeswere buried in simple individual rench
graves dug into the ground. Ossuaries were used in rock-cut tombs as con-
tainers for the collected, decomposed remains (bones) of earlier burials.The
custom of ossilegium apparentlyhas nothing to do with Jewishbeliefs in resur-rection and afterlife and instead is analogous to the use of cineraryurns else-
where the Roman world. Since Jews did not cremate their dead, Judean
1 See AndreLemaire, "BurialBoxof James the Brotherof Jesus,"BAR28 (2002):24-33, 70;
Hershel Shanksand Ben WitheringtonIII, The Brother ofJesus:TheDramaticStory&Meaningof
the FirstArchaeologicalLinktoJesus & His Family (New York:HarperSanFrancisco,2003). I am
not concerned here with the paleographicalandscientific analysesthathaveattemptedto proveor
disprovethe authenticityof allor partof the inscription.Instead, I hope to demonstratethateven if
the inscription s authentic (ancient),this ossuarywould not havecontained the bones of JamestheJust, the brother of Jesus. I am grateful to Andrea Berlin, Bruce Chilton, Karl Donfried, Bart
Ehrman,Paul Flesher, JacobNeusner, andthe two anonymousJBL reviewersfor their comments
on this paper. Their advice does not imply agreement with the contents of this paper, for which I
assume sole responsibility.
121
7/28/2019 Ossuário e sepultamento de Jesus e Tiago
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/ossuario-e-sepultamento-de-jesus-e-tiago 3/35
Journal of BiblicalLiterature
ossuaries were used for the collection of bones, not cremated remains. The
appearanceof ossuaries s one aspect of the adoptionof Hellenistic and Roman
fashionsby Jerusalem's lite duringHerod'sreign.
My review of Jewishtombs andburialcustoms in the late Second Temple
period sets the stage fora reconsiderationof the archaeologicaland literaryevi-
dence for the burialsof Jesus and his brotherJames. In the second part of this
article I discuss the Gospel accounts describingthe removalof Jesus from the
cross and his burial. In my opinion, these accounts are consistent with the
archaeologicalevidence and with Jewishlaw.Jesuscame froma family of mod-
est means that presumablydid not own a rock-cut tomb. Because Jesus died
andwas removed from the cross on the eve of the Sabbath, here was no time to
dig a trench gravefor him. For this reason,Jesus' body was placed in the rock-
cut family tomb of a wealthy follower (named Joseph of Arimathea in theGospel accounts).
In the lastpartof this articleI examinethe evidence forthe burialof Jesus'
brotherJames, includingthe controversial"Jamesossuary."The claim that this
ossuarycontainedthe remainsof Jamesthe Justis inconsistentwith the archae-
ological and literaryevidence. Not only did Jamescome from a familyof mod-
est means, but he was known for his opposition to the accumulationof wealth
andthe lifestyle andvalues of the upper classes.James was executed by stoning
on a charge of violatingJewish awandwas apparentlyburied in a simple trench
grave that would not have contained an ossuary.A second-century C.E.refer-ence by Hegesippus to a tombstone marking he spot of James'sgraveseems topreserve an accuratetraditionconcerningthe mannerof his burial.Therefore I
conclude that even if the inscriptionon the "Jamesossuary" s authenticand is
not a modern forgery,this stone box would not have contained the bones of
Jamesthe Just,the brotherof Jesus.
I. AncientJewishTombsin Jerusalem:
The Late FirstTemple Period
Tounderstandhow the Jewsof the late Second Temple period disposed of
their dead, we must begin with the late First Temple period. In both periods
the wealthyJewishpopulationof ancientJerusalem nterred their dead in rock-
cut tombs. The followingfeaturescharacterizethese tombs:
1. The rock-cut tombs are artificiallyhewn, underground caves that are
cut into the bedrockslopes aroundJerusalem.
2. With few exceptions, the tombs were located outside the walls of thecity.
122
7/28/2019 Ossuário e sepultamento de Jesus e Tiago
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/ossuario-e-sepultamento-de-jesus-e-tiago 4/35
Magness: TheBurialsofJesus and James
3. Each tomb was used by a familyover the course of severalgenerations,
as described by the biblicalexpression"heslept andwas gatheredto his
fathers" e.g., Judg2:10;2 Chr34:28).2
4. When a member of the familydied, the body was wrapped in a shroudand sometimes placed in a coffin;it was then laid in the tomb as an indi-
vidual inhumation, even if the bones were later collected and placed
elsewhere.
5. Because of the expense associated with hewing a burial cave into
bedrock, only the wealthier members of Jerusalem'spopulation-the
upper class and upper middle class-could affordrock-cuttombs. The
poorer members of Jerusalem'spopulation apparentlydisposed of their
dead in a mannerthathas left fewer tracesin the archaeologicalrecord,for example, in individual trench graves or cist graves dug into the
ground.
6. From the earliest periods, the layout and decoration of Jerusalem's
rock-cuttombs exhibited foreign culturalinfluences and fashions.Evi-
dence for such influence-and indeed, for the use of rock-cuttombs-
is attested only in times when Jerusalem's Jewish elite enjoyed an
autonomous or semiautonomousstatus: n the late First Temple period
(eighth and seventh centuries until 586 B.C.E.)and the late SecondTemple period (from the establishment of the Hasmonean kingdom
until 70 C.E.).During these periods the Jerusalemelite adopted foreign
fashionsthatwere introducedby the rulersor governingauthorities.
Rock-cut tombs of the late First Temple period have been discovered to
the west, north,and east of the Old City. They include the tombs at Ketef Hin-
nom, the caves at St. ltienne (the IEcoleBiblique), and the caves in the Silwan
(Siloam)village.3These tombs typicallyconsist of one or more burialchambers
2 Anthropological analyses of human skeletal remains from several burialcaves of the late
Second Temple period have confirmedthat the individuals n each tomb were related andthat the
tombswere family-owned;see YossiNagarand HagitTorgee, "BiologicalCharacteristicsof Jewish
Burial n the Hellenistic and EarlyRomanPeriod,"IEJ53 (2003): 164-71.
3A comprehensivediscussionof tombs from the First Temple period lies outside the scope
of this article. For general information, ncludingthe tombs mentioned here, see Elizabeth Bloch-
Smith,JudahiteBurial Practicesand Beliefsabout the Dead (Sheffield:Sheffield Academic Press,
1992);GabrielBarkay,"BurialCavesand BurialPractices n Judah n the IronAge"(in Hebrew), in
Graves and Burial Practices in Israel in the Ancient Period (ed. I. Singer;Jerusalem:YadIzhak
Ben-Zvi, 1994), 96-164; idem, "The Necropoli of Jerusalem in the First Temple Period" (inHebrew), in The HistoryofJerusalem:TheBiblicalPeriod(ed. S. AhituvandA. Mazar;Jerusalem:
Yad IzhakBen-Zvi,2000), 233-70; GabrielBarkayand Amos Kloner,"JerusalemTombs from the
123
7/28/2019 Ossuário e sepultamento de Jesus e Tiago
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/ossuario-e-sepultamento-de-jesus-e-tiago 5/35
Journalof BiblicalLiterature
which were entered througha small,unadornedopening cut into the bedrock.
Each burial chamber is lined with rock-cut benches around three sides, on
which the bodies of the deceased were laid.Frequentlyapit hewn underone of
the benches was used as a repositoryforthe bones of earlierburials.In thisway,
space was made for new interments when the benches were occupied. An
undisturbed repositoryin the Ketef Hinnom cemetery contained large num-
bers of skeletons as well as the burial gifts that accompanied them, including
ceramic vases and oil lamps, jewelry, seals, a rare early coin, and two silver
amulets.4 Many of the decorative elements in these burial caves, such as the
benches with carved headrests and parapets, and the cornices carved around
the top of the burialchambers (as, for example, at St. Etienne) reflect Phoeni-
cian influence (or Egyptian styles transmitted directly from Egypt or through
Phoenician intermediaries).5Phoenicianinfluence on the tombs of Jerusalem'selite in the First Temple period is hardly surprising in light of the biblical
accounts of Phoenician involvement in the constructionof Solomon'stemple,
as well as later contacts between the Israelites and their neighbors to the
north.6
II. AncientJewishTombsin Jerusalem:
The Late Second Temple Period
After the destruction of Jerusalem and Solomon's temple in 586 B.C.E.,
archaeological evidence for Jewish burial caves reappears only in the Has-
monean period, when Jerusalemagain came under Jewish rule. Although the
Maccabeeswere renownedfortheir oppositionto the introductionof Hellenis-
tic culture to Judea, the Hasmonean rulers show signs of Hellenization soon
afterthe establishmentof their kingdom.This is perhaps best illustratedby the
monumental familytomb and victorymemorialbuilt by Simon in their home-
town of Modiin, in which he interredthe remainsof his parents and brothers.
Days of the First Temple," BAR 12 (1986): 22-39; Gabriel Barkay,Amihai Mazar, and Amos
Kloner,"TheNorthern Cemetery of Jerusalem in First Temple Times"(in Hebrew), Qadmoniot
30-31 (1975):71-76; DavidUssishkin, TheVillageof Silwan:TheNecropolis rom the Periodof the
Judean Kingdom(Jerusalem:Israel ExplorationSociety, 1993); Nahman Avigad,Ancient Monu-
ments in the Kidron Valley (in Hebrew) (Jerusalem:BialikInstitute, 1954).
4 See GabrielBarkay,"Newsfromthe Field: The Divine Name Found in Jerusalem,"BAR9
(1983): 14-19.
5 See Jodi Magness,"ANear Eastern Ethnic Element among the EtruscanElite?"Etruscan
Studies8 (2001): 79-117.
6 Phoenician influence is evident also in the Proto-Aeoliccapitals,carved ivories, and otherobjects and decorative elements found in the Israelite and Judahitepalaces; see Amihai Mazar,
Archaeologyof the Land of the Bible 10,000-586 B.C.E. (New York:Doubleday, 1990), 408-12,426.
124
7/28/2019 Ossuário e sepultamento de Jesus e Tiago
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/ossuario-e-sepultamento-de-jesus-e-tiago 6/35
Magness: TheBurialsoffesus andJames
Although no remains of this tomb survive, our literary sources leave little doubt
that it was inspired by the tomb of Mausolus of Caria-the so-called Mau-
soleum at Halicarnassus-which is one of the seven wonders of the ancient
world:7
And Simon built a monument over the graveof his father and his brothers,
and made it high so that it could be seen, with polished stone on back and
front. And he erected seven pyramids n a row, for his father and his mother
and his four brothers. And he made devices for these, setting up great tro-
phies of armor for an everlasting memorial, and beside the armor carved
prowsof ships, so that they could be seen by allwho sailed the sea. Suchwas
the monument that he built at Modin, and that still stands today. (1 Mace13:27-30)
However, Simon sent some to the city Basca to bring away his brother'sbones, and buried them in their own city Modin; and all the people made
great lamentation over him. Simon also erected a very large monument for
his father and his brethren, of white and polished stone, and raised it to a
greatheight, and so as to be seen a long way off, and made cloistersaboutit,
andset up pillars,whichwere of one stone apiece;a workit waswonderfulto
see. Moreover,he built seven pyramidsalso for his parentsand his brethren,
one for each of them, which were made very surprising,both for their large-
ness and beauty, andwhich have been preservedto this day. (Josephus,Ant.
13.6.6)8
Like the Mausoleum, the tomb of the Maccabees consisted of a tall podium
with a templelike building surrounded by columns and capped by a pyramidal
roof (or in the case of the tomb of the Maccabees, seven pyramids, one for each
family member). As Andrea Berlin notes, none of these features is found in ear-
lier Jewish or Phoenician tombs in Palestine.9 Pyramidal, conical, or columnar
tomb markers became popular among Jerusalem's elite in the first century
B.C.E. and first century C.E. (as well as among neighboring peoples such as the
Nabateans). The Jews referred to this type of tomb marker as a nepheS
(Hebrew meaning "soul").10It is not surprising that the Hasmoneans adopted elements of Hellenistic
7 See AndreaM. Berlin, "Powerand Its Afterlife:Tombs in Hellenistic Palestine,"NEA 65
(2002): 143-47; Janos Fedak, MonumentalTombsof the Hellenistic Age (Toronto:Universityof
TorontoPress, 1990), 71-74.
8 All translationsof Josephusare from WilliamWhiston,Josephus:CompleteWorks(Grand
Rapids:Kregel, 1984).
9 Berlin,"Powerand Its Afterlife,"145.
10See LotharTriebel,Jenseitshoffnung n Wortund Stein: Nefeschund pyramidalesGrab-mal als Phdnomeneantikenjiidischen Bestattungswesens m Kontextder Nachbarkulturen AGJU
56; Leiden: Brill, 2004); Levy Y. Rahmani,"AncientJerusalem'sFuneraryCustoms and Tombs,
PartThree,"BA44 (1981): 46.
125
7/28/2019 Ossuário e sepultamento de Jesus e Tiago
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/ossuario-e-sepultamento-de-jesus-e-tiago 7/35
Journalof BiblicalLiterature
culture to display their status.11 By the first half of the second century B.C.E.,
Jerusalem's lite, includingthe high priests,were predisposedto embrace Hel-
lenistic culture. These elite families (most prominently, the Tobiads, Simonites,
and Oniads) had allied themselves alternatelywith the Ptolemies, the Seleu-
cids, and/or the Romans.12 In 175 B.C.E.,while the high priest Onias III was in
Antioch, his brother Jason seized the high priesthood for himself. Jason
requested (and received) Antiochus IV's permission to refound Jerusalem as a
Greek polis, and established a gymnasium for the education of the city's Jewish
youth:
But when Seleucus departed this life and Antiochus, who was called
Epiphanes, succeeded to the kingdom, Onias' brother Jason obtained the
high priesthood by corruption, promisingthe king in his petition three hun-
dred and sixty talents of silver, and eighty talents from other revenues.Besides this he promised to pay a hundred and fifty more, if he was given
authorityto set up a gymnasiumand a training place for youth there and to
enroll the people of Jerusalemas citizens of Antioch.When the kinghad con-
sented, and he had taken office, he immediately brought his countrymen
over to the Greekwayof living. (2 Mace4:7-10)
Commenting on this episode, Martin Hengel said, "The initiative here clearly
came from the Hellenists in Jerusalem, who presumably had the majority of the
priests and lay nobility, who in practice held all power in their hands, on their
side."3 2 Maccabees describes how the high priestshurried to finishtheir sac-rifices so they could watch the games:
For he [Jason]willinglyestablisheda gymnasiumrightunderthe citadel, and
he made the finest of the young men wearthe Greek hat.Andto such a pitch
did the cultivationof Greek fashions and the coming-in of foreign customs
rise, because of the excessive wickedness of this godless Jason,who was no
high priest at all, that the priestswere no longer earnestaboutthe servicesof
the altar,but disdaining he sanctuaryand neglecting the sacrifices,they hur-
ried to take part in the unlawful exercises in the wrestling school, after the
summonsto the discus-throwing. 2 Mace4:12-14)
11Theinfluence fHellenisticulture ntheHasmoneanssreflected lsobytheiradoption
of Greeknames,and nfluence s evidenton literaryworkscomposedn thisperiod; ee Lee I.
Levine, Jerusalem: Portrait of the City in the Second Temple Period (538 B.C.E.-70 C.E.)
(Philadelphia:ewishPublicationociety, 002),144-45.12Forpro-Ptolemaicndpro-SeleucidactionsnJerusalem,ee HenkJagersma, History
of Israelfrom Alexanderthe Great to Bar Kochba (trans.John Bowden; Philadelphia:Fortress,
1986),40-41.Jagersmauggests hatOnias IIhadapro-Ptolemaictance,whereas imon nd he
restoftheTobaidsweremorepro-Seleucid.13MartinHengel,Judaism and Hellenism:Studiesin TheirEncounter n Palestineduringthe
Early HellenisticPeriod(trans.JohnBowden:Philadelphia:Fortress,1981), 277.
126
7/28/2019 Ossuário e sepultamento de Jesus e Tiago
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/ossuario-e-sepultamento-de-jesus-e-tiago 8/35
Magness: TheBurialsoffesus and James
Interestingly,the Maccabeanrevolt was provoked not by Jason'sacts but by a
decree issued by Antiochus IV a number of years later (in 167 B.C.E.),which
resulted in the rededication of the Jerusalem temple to Olympian Zeus (see
1 Mace 1:41-50).14
Berlin attributesthe adoption of Hellenistic material culture by Simon to
the fact that Jonathan, his brother and predecessor, established himself as a
dynast who was involved in international politics. Upon Jonathan's death,
Simon transformedthe "unpretentious amilytomb into a dynastic monument
fit for a king,"modeled after the monuments of the Hellenistic East.15Begin-
ningwith JohnHyrcanusI, Simon'ssuccessorsadopted Greeknames.16 n con-
trast, the Qumran community,which was apparentlyfounded by dispossessed
Zadokite priests,consciouslyrejected Hellenistic and Romanculture.17
Jason'stomb demonstrates that Jerusalem'selite soon imitated the newtomb style introducedby Simon,which itselfwas inspiredby the Mausoleum at
Halicarnassus.Berlin describes Jason's omb as "the earliest surviving display
tomb' in Jerusalem."18 his Hasmonean-periodtomb is located in the western
Jerusalemneighborhoodof Rehavia.19 t is called Jason's omb because a graf-
fito incised on one of the walls asksthe visitor to lament the death of Jason.20
Jason'stomb continues the earlier tradition of rock-cut burial caves in Jeru-
salem but with several innovations.21A large stone pyramidwas constructed
above the tomb. The tomb was approached through a series of long, open
courtyards like a dromos)that gave access to a porch. The porch'sentablature
was supportedby a single Doric column in-antis (a Doric column set between
the thickened, projecting ends of the porch walls). The porch gave access to
two rooms: a burial chamber (A) and a charnel room (B). Instead of having
rock-cut benches like the tombs from the First Temple period, the burial
14The Samaritans eem to havecomplied by requestingthattheir temple on Mount Gerizim
be rededicated to Zeus Hellenios; for sources and a discussion, see Jagersma,History of Israel,
50-51.
'5 Berlin, "Powerand Its Afterlife,"145-47.
16See Hengel,Judaismand Hellenism,64.
17See Jodi Magness, TheArchaeology of Qumranand the Dead Sea Scrolls (GrandRapids:
Eerdmans, 2002), 202-6; but for Hellenistic influence on the Essenes, see Levine,Jerusalem,145.
18Berlin, "Powerand Its Afterlife,"142.
19Levy Y. Rahmani, "Jason'sTomb," IEJ 17 (1967): 61-100; for a recent discussion, see
Berlin,"Powerand Its Afterlife,"142-43.
20See NahmanAvigad,"Aramaic nscriptions n the Tomb of Jason," EJ 17 (1967): 101-11;
Rahmani, "Ancient Jerusalem's Funerary Customs and Tombs, Part Three," 45. Avigad com-
mented, "The name Jason was common among hellenizing Jews as the equivalent for Joshua"
("Aramaic nscriptions n the Tomb of Jason,"103).21See Rahmani,"Jason'sTomb"; dem, "AncientJerusalem'sFuneraryCustomsandTombs,
PartThree," 45.
127
7/28/2019 Ossuário e sepultamento de Jesus e Tiago
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/ossuario-e-sepultamento-de-jesus-e-tiago 9/35
Journalof BiblicalLiterature
chamber in Jason's omb has loculi (Hebrew kokhim) cut into the walls. Each
loculus was designed to hold an individual inhumation. Like the pyramidal
markerandthe porchwith a column, loculi reflect Hellenistic influence. Loculi
are common in tombs in Hellenistic Alexandriaand make their first recorded
appearance in Palestine at Marisa in Idumaea.22Instead of depositing the
remains of earlierburials in a pit or repository,as in the tombs from the First
Temple period, the bones cleared out of the loculi in Jason's omb were placed
in the charnelroom.23
Most of the featuresthatappear n Jason's omb remainedcharacteristicof
Jewish rock-cuttombs in Jerusalemuntil the end of the Second Templeperiod:
a porch in front of the tomb'sentrance, sometimes with two columns in-antis;
loculi cut into the walls of the burialchambers; and a large pyramidal,conical,
orcolumnar
markerconstructedover the
tomb.The
differences betweenindi-
vidual rock-cut tombs of the late Second Temple period in Jerusalem mostly
concern their size and degree of elaboration; that is, the number of burial
chambers, the decoration on the tomb'sfacade or porch, and the presence of
one or more monumental tomb markers.Rock-cut tombs with these features
surround Jerusalem on the north, east, and south.24Well-known examples
include the tomb of Bene Hezir in the Kidron Valley, the tomb of Queen
Helena of Adiabene (the so-called Tomb of the Kings) near the American
Colony Hotel, the Sanhedria tombs, and Nicanor'sTomb on Mount Scopus.25
Herod'stomb andmemorialto himself-the mountainof Herodium- displaysthe same features but on a much largerscale: an undergroundburialchamber
with a conical markerabove.26
22See MarjorieS. Venit, MonumentalTombsof AncientAlexandria:TheTheaterof the Dead
(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress, 2002), 175-78; Rahmani,"AncientJerusalem'sFuner-
aryCustomsand Tombs, PartThree,"45; ByronR. McCane,RollBackthe Stone:Death and Burial
in the Worldof Jesus (Harrisburg,PA:TrinityPress International,2003), 7. Berlin notes that the
tombs at Marisa,which were used by the Sidonianpopulationat the site, continue Phoeniciantra-
ditions (such as the lackof outwarddisplay) while incorporatingnew Hellenistic features (such as
loculi) ("Powerand Its Afterlife,"139-41).23For other examples of late-second-century to first-century B.C.E.loculus tombs in
Jerusalemthat antedatethe introductionof ossuaries,see Rahmani,"AncientJerusalem'sFunerary
CustomsandTombs, PartThree,"46.
24See Amos Kloner and Boaz Zissu, The Necropolis of Jerusalem in the Second Temple
Period (in Hebrew) (Jerusalem:YadIzhakBen-Zvi,2003).
25For bibliographyon these tombs, see ibid.;Rahmani,"AncientJerusalem'sFunerary Cus-
toms and Tombs, PartThree";CraigA. Evans,Jesus and the Ossuaries:WhatJewish Burial Prac-
tices Reveal about the Beginningof Christianity(Waco:Baylor UniversityPress,2003), 17-19. For
Nicanor'sTomb, see NahmanAvigad,"JewishRock-CutTombs in Jerusalemandthe JudaeanHill
Country" in Hebrew) El 8 (1967): 119-25.
26See ArthurSegal, "Herodium," EJ 23 (1973):27-29; for a recent discussion with bibliog-
raphy,see Jodi Magness, "TheMausoleaof Augustus,Alexander,and Herod the Great," n Hesed
Ve-Emet, Studies in Honor of Ernest S. Frerichs (ed. J. Magness and S. Gitin;Atlanta:Scholars
Press, 1998), 313-39.
128
7/28/2019 Ossuário e sepultamento de Jesus e Tiago
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/ossuario-e-sepultamento-de-jesus-e-tiago 10/35
Magness: The Burials ofJesus andJames
III. Why Ossuaries?
Sometime in the middle of Herod'sreign, around 20-15 B.C.E.,ossuaries
firstappearedin Jerusalem's ock-cuttombs.27There is no doubt that ossuaries
were used as containers for bones removed from loculi. The question is why
ossuarieswere introduced at this time andwhy they disappearfromJerusalem
after70 C.E.(withevidence for their use on a smallerandmore modest scale in
southernJudeaand Galilee until the thirdcentury).28Most of these smallrect-
angularcontainers are made of stone quarriedin the Jerusalem area, usually
soft chalkand less frequentlyharderlimestone.29They have flat or gabled lids.
27Rahmanisuggests the dateof ca. 20-15 B.C.E.;ee LevyY.Rahmani,A CatalogueofJewish
Ossuaries n the Collectionsof the Stateof Israel (Jerusalem: sraelAntiquitiesAuthority,1994),21.For discussions of the chronology of ossuaries, see Fanny Vitto, "BurialCaves from the Second
Temple Period in Jerusalem(Mount Scopus, Giv'atHamivtar,Neveh Ya'akov),"Atiqot40 (2000):
98; YitzhakMagen, The StoneVesselIndustryin the SecondTemplePeriod: Excavationsat Hizma
and the Jerusalem Temple Mount (Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 2002), 135; Jane M.
Cahill,"ChalkVessel Assemblagesof the Persian/Hellenisticand Early RomanPeriods," n Exca-
vations at the City of David 1978-1985 Directed by YigalShiloh, vol. 3, Stratigraphical,Environ-
mental, and Other Reports (Qedem 33) (ed. A. de Groot and D. T. Ariel; Jerusalem: Israel
ExplorationSociety, 1992), 218. Vitto's discovery of an undisturbed tomb dating to the reign of
Herod into which ossuarieswere introducedduringthe last phase of use confirmsRahmani'sdat-
ing;see Vitto, "BurialCaves from
theSecond Temple Period
inJerusalem,"
103.Interestingly,
allof the ossuaries from this tomb are undecorated. On p. 119 n. 3, Vitto correctly notes that R.
Hachlili's erminuspost quemof ca. 10 B.C.E.orthe appearanceof ossuaries,which is basedon evi-
dence fromthe Jerichocemetery, is too late forJerusalem.Vitto'sevidence alsocontradictsCahill's
proposed first-centuryC.E.date for the introduction of ossuaries (Cahill, "ChalkVessel Assem-
blages,"233). On the other hand, Hadas'sproposed early-first-centuryB.C.E.date (!), based on the
discoveryof a single stone ossuary n Tomb 4 at Ein Gedi, is much too early and is unsupportedby
the archaeologicalevidence; see Gideon Hadas, Nine Tombsof the Second TemplePeriodat cEn
Gedi ('Atiqot24) (Jerusalem: sraelAntiquitiesAuthority, 1994), 7*:"Inview of the suggested date
of the tomb, the date for the introductionof ossilegium in stone chests may be moved up to the
early first century BCE." The pottery from this tomb includes cooking pots, unguentaria,and a
Judean radial oil lamp, all of which represent types characteristicof the Herodianperiod (that is,the time of Herod the Great,and in some cases continuinglater);compareHadas,22, fig. 32: 8-9
(unguentaria),10 (oil lamp), 12-13 (cookingpots) with Rachel Bar-Nathan,Hasmoneanand Hero-
dian Palaces atJericho:ThePottery(Jerusalem: sraelExplorationSociety,2002), 165-67 (unguen-
taria), 170-72 (cooking pots). Although Judean radial lamps date generally to the first century
B.C.E.,most, if not all,of the specimens fromMasadadate to the reignof Herod the Great;see Dan
Baragand MalkaHershkovitz,"Lamps rom Masada,"n MasadaIV:TheYigaelYadinExcavations
1963-1965: Final Reports (Jerusalem:Israel ExplorationSociety, 1994), 22-24. In other words,
althoughTomb 4 at Ein Gedi might have been used before Herod'stime, burialscertainly contin-
ued duringhis reign. There is thus no basis fordatingthe stone ossuaryfrom this tomb to the early
first century B.C.E.
28For the post-70 examples, see Rahmani,Catalogueof Jewish Ossuaries,23-25; many of
the laterspecimens from Galilee are made of clay.
29Magen, Stone Vessel Industry in the Second TemplePeriod, 133; Rahmani,Catalogueof
Jewish Ossuaries,3.
129
7/28/2019 Ossuário e sepultamento de Jesus e Tiago
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/ossuario-e-sepultamento-de-jesus-e-tiago 11/35
Journal of BiblicalLiterature
The ossuaries can be plain or decorated (usuallywith incised or chip-carved
designs, rarely in relief, and sometimes with painting).30 Sometimes the
name(s) of the deceased (and infrequentlyother informationsuch as their title
or occupation) were incised on the front, back, side, or lid of the ossuary.31
Most of the inscriptionsare in Aramaic,Hebrew, or Greek (less frequently,in
more than one language),and usuallythey are crudelyexecuted.32There is no
correlation between the relative wealth and status of the deceased and the
ornamentation of the ossuary,since plain or uninscribed ossuaries have been
found in tombs belonging to some of ancient Jerusalem'smost prominentfami-
lies.33This is alsotrue of the tombs themselves, as indicatedby the modest size
and appearanceof the tomb of the Caiaphasfamily.34nterestingly,some of the
largestand most lavishlydecorated tombs belonged to 6migrdfamilies livingin
Jerusalem: the tomb of Queen Helena of Adiabene (which was crowned by
30See Rahmani,Catalogueof Jewish Ossuaries, 4-6; Magen, Stone Vessel Industry in the
SecondTemplePeriod, 133-35.
31See Steven Fine, "ANote on OssuaryBurialand the Resurrectionof the Dead in First-
CenturyJerusalem,"JJS 1 (2000):75.
32Rahmani,CatalogueofJewish Ossuaries,11-19; also see Fine, "Note on OssuaryBurial,"
74.
33Rahmaninotes thatrichlydecoratedossuarieswere found togetherwith the much simpler
sarcophagusof Queen Helena:"While t is clearthatonlywealthyfamilieswouldhave been able toaffordthe costlyvarieties of ossuaries,the choice of cheaper types shouldnot be regardedas a sign
of comparativepoverty or of parsimony" Catalogueof Jewish Ossuaries, 11). Of the seven ossu-
aries discovered in Nicanor's tomb, three were plain (Avigad, "Jewish Rock-Cut Tombs in
Jerusalem,"124). In cave 1 of the Akeldamatombs, none of the ossuarieswas inscribed,halfwere
plain, and only three were painted; see TamarShadmi,"The Ossuaries and the Sarcophagus,"n
The Akeldama Tombs, ThreeBurial Caves in the KidronValley,Jerusalem(IAA Reports,No. 1)
(ed. G. Avniand Z. Greenhut;Jerusalem:IsraelAntiquitiesAuthority, 1996), 51. Similarly, here is
no correlation between the statusof the deceased and the qualityof the inscriptionson ossuaries.
Therefore, contrary to Evans (Jesus and the Ossuaries, 107-8), the relative simplicity of the
Caiaphastomb andthe poor qualityof the inscriptionson the ossuariesfound in it do not disprove
its identificationas the tomb of the well-knownhigh priestandhis family.Instead,the archaeologi-
cal and literaryevidence supportsthis identification,althoughit cannot be establishedwith abso-
lute certainty.Rahmanialso makesthe valuableobservationthat the seeminglyhigh proportionof
inscribed ossuariesis misleadingsince manyplain or uninscribed ossuarieswere discardedby the
excavatorsor areunpublished(CatalogueofJewish Ossuaries,11).
34See Zvi Greenhut, "BurialCave of the Caiaphas Family," BAR 18 (1992): 28-36, 76;
Levine,Jerusalem,210; McCane,RollBackthe Stone,35; Rahmani,CatalogueofJewishOssuaries,
174. As McCane cautions:"Apoorly constructed tomb might appear to be evidence of a family's
lower socialandeconomic status,but conclusionsof this sort requirecarefulreview,since richfam-
ilies mayhavehadthe meansto build a splendidtomb but simplychose to use theirwealth in other
ways. In fact, there would have been little social incentive for Jewish families in this region andperiod to expend resources on the construction and ornamentation of a tomb's interior. ... A
roughlyhewn burialchamber might therefore be evidence not of a family'spoverty,but ratherof
their inclinationto spendwealth in otherways" RollBack the Stone, 35).
130
7/28/2019 Ossuário e sepultamento de Jesus e Tiago
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/ossuario-e-sepultamento-de-jesus-e-tiago 12/35
Magness: The BurialsofJesus andJames
three pyramidalmarkers),35Nicanor's omb (whichcontainsmore burialcham-
bers than any other Jerusalem tomb),36 and caves 2 and 3 of the Akeldama
tombs (which are unique in the quality and quantityof decoration inside the
burialchambers).37Perhaps these familiesconstructedespecially largeand lav-
ish tombs to establishtheir standingamongthe local elite.
Levy YitzhakRahmanihas suggested that the appearance of ossuaries is
connected with the Pharisaicbelief in the individual,physical resurrectionof
the dead.38Priorto the introductionof ossuaries,the remains of earlier burials
in rock-cut tombs were placed in pits, repositories, or charnel rooms. The
skeletonswere therefore mingled and susceptible to separation,breakage, and
even loss. This means that in the event of a physical resurrection,an individual
would be restoredto life missingvitalbody parts.In addition,Rahmaniargues
that the collection of bones in an ossuarycorrespondsto the Pharisaicnotionthat the decay of the flesh is connected with the expiation of sin.39In other
words,each individual's emainswere preservedintactin anossuary, n a sinless
state, awaitingfuture resurrection.
Many scholarshave pointed to difficulties with Rahmani'sexplanation.40
"3For summaries and bibliography, see Levine, Jerusalem, 211; Rahmani, "Ancient
Jerusalem'sFuneraryCustomsand Tombs, PartThree,"48-49. For the inscribedstone sarcopha-
gus fromthis tomb, which apparentlycontainedthe queen's remains,see Jean-BaptisteFrey, Cor-
pus Inscriptionum ludaicarum, vol. 2, Asie-Afrique (Rome: Pontifico Istituto di Archeologia
Cristiana,1952), 320-21 no. 1388.36Otherunparalleledfeaturesinclude the use of stone masonryrevetment alongthe interior
walls of the tomb and the fact that the two squarepillarsor piers in the porch are constructedof
ashlarsinstead of being hewn out of rock;see Avigad ("JewishRock-Cut Tombs in Jerusalem,"
119-24), who describes Nicanor's tomb as "one of the most monumental tombs in Jerusalem"
(p. 119;my translation romthe Hebrew). Also see Evans,Jesusand the Ossuaries,24, 92-93.
37See Gideon Avni and Zvi Greenhut, "Resting Place of the Rich and Famous,"BAR 20
(1994): 36-46; Avni and Greenhut (AkeldamaTombs,32-33) note, "Apossible clue to the occur-
rence of these decorativeschemes andthe high standardof workmanshipevidenced in ChamberC
of Cave 3 maybe found in the identity of the cave owners-a wealthyJewish familyfrom Syria."
For the Syrianplace-names mentioned on the ossuariesfromthis cave, see Tal Ilan,"TheOssuary
and Sarcophagus Inscriptions,"in Akeldama Tombs, ed. Avni and Greenhut, 68, who notes the
prominentpositionsattainedby some DiasporaJewishfamiliesin HerodianJerusalem.In addition,
only six of the forty ossuaries discovered in the Akeldama tombs lacked ornamentation or an
inscription; see Shadmi, "Ossuariesand the Sarcophagus,"50-51. The archaeological evidence
supportsthe Gospel tradition(Matt27:7-8) thatAkeldama(Potter's Field) was a burialgroundfor
foreigners. For a discussion of how this elite cemetery came to be associated with the poor, see
Leen Ritmeyer and Kathleen Ritmeyer,"Potter'sField or High Priest'sTomb?"BAR 20 (1994):
22-35, 76.
38LevyY. Rahmani,"AncientJerusalem'sFunerary Customs andTombs, PartOne,"BA 44
(1981): 175-76; idem, CatalogueofJewish Ossuaries,53-55.
39Rahmani,"AncientJerusalem'sFuneraryCustomsandTombs,PartOne," 175;idem, Cat-alogueofJewish Ossuaries, 53-55; also see McCane,RollBackthe Stone,43.
40See, e.g., McCane, Roll Back the Stone, 43; Evans,Jesus and the Ossuaries,30; Levine,
Jerusalem,264; Fine, "Note on OssuaryBurial,"70-72; Eyal Regev, "TheIndividualisticMeaning
131
7/28/2019 Ossuário e sepultamento de Jesus e Tiago
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/ossuario-e-sepultamento-de-jesus-e-tiago 13/35
Journalof BiblicalLiterature
For example, ossuariesfrequently containthe bones of more than one individ-
ual, and sometimes parts of the skeleton are missing.41Even in tombs with
ossuaries, skeletons were sometimes deposited in pits or repositories.42 n my
opinion, thegreatest difficulty
with Rahmani'sexplanationisthat
our sources
associate the belief in individual, physical resurrection of the dead with the
Pharisees (see, e.g., Josephus,Ant. 18.1.3). These same sources tell us that the
Sadducees rejected this concept (Josephus,Ant. 18.1.4; Matt22:23). But there
is no doubt that the monumental rock-cut tombs with ossuaries belonged to
Jerusalem's elite, many of whom were Sadducees.43 In fact, some of these
tombs and ossuaries belonged to high priestly families, such as the tomb of
of Jewish Ossuaries:A Socio-AnthropologicalPerspective on Burial Practice," PEQ 133 (2001):
40-42; Eric M. Meyers,JewishOssuaries:Rebirthand Birth (Rome:BiblicalInstitutePress, 1971),
85-86.
41See Magen, Stone Vessel Industry in the Second Temple Period, 137; Fine, "Note on
OssuaryBurial,"75. For example, the Caiaphas ossuarycontained the remainsof six individuals:
two infants,a child between the ages of two and five, a youth aged thirteen to eighteen, an adult
female, anda manaboutsixtyyearsof age;see Greenhut,"BurialCaveof the CaiaphasFamily,"34.
The ossuary with the remainsof Yohanan, he crucified man from Giv'atha-Mivtar,contained the
partialremainsof a second adultaswell asa child;see JosephZiasandEliezer Sekeles, "TheCruci-
fied Manfrom Giv'at ha-Mivtar:A Reappraisal,"EJ35 (1985):23-24. For otherexamples,see the
Akeldamatombs (Avniand Greenhut,AkeldamaTombs,51-52), where nearlyevery ossuarycon-tained the remainsof more than one individual.As Ilan observed, "Usually,bones that were col-
lected into ossuariesincluded remainsof more than one individual,at Akeldamaand elsewhere"
("Ossuary nd Sarcophagus nscriptions," 6). For ossuariescontainingthe bones of dogs andother
animalstogetherwith humanremains,see Rahmani,Catalogue ofJewish Ossuaries,124 no. 200.
42See, e.g., AvniandGreenhut,AkeldamaTombs,34; alsosee Hadas(NineTombsof the Sec-
ond TemplePeriodat 'En Gedi, 7*), who notes that the Ein Gedi caves provide evidence for the
contemporaneousemploymentof differentburialmethods.
43See Regev, "IndividualisticMeaningof JewishOssuaries,"41. Almostthirty-fiveyearsago
Meyers,Jewish Ossuaries, 86, cautioned, "Itwould seem hazardous, therefore, to try to relate
either ossuariesor sarcophagito a particularJewish sect or segment of society in earlierTemple
times." On the other hand, there is no doubt that the rock-cut tombs belonged to members of
Jerusalem'selite, at least some of whom were Sadducees. For example, Jon Davies, discussing a
rock-cuttomb of the late Second Temple period in Jerusalem,noted that "thecost of constructing
the grave[tomb] itself indicatedwealthyownership" Death,Burial, and Rebirth n the Religions of
Antiquity [New York:Routledge, 1999], 82). Joseph Zias notes in his discussionof a tomb of the
late SecondTemple periodthat waspoor in findsthat"thefamilywasapparentlywealthyenoughto
afforda rock-hewntomb"("ARock-CutTomb in Jerusalem,"BASOR 245 [1982]:54). Regarding
the Akeldama ombs, Ziasobservesthat"therelativewealthof the familiesburiedhere, manifested
by tomb architecture and the ossuaries . . ." ("Anthropological Analysis of Human Skeletal
Remains," n AkeldamaTombs, ed. Avni and Greenhut, 118). Peter Richardsonsuggests that the
Sadducees as a religiousentitywere largelyreplacedduringHerod'sreignby a socialelite (Herod:King of the Jews and Friend of the Romans [Minneapolis:Fortress, 1999], 253). Levine supports
the traditionalview that the Sadducees were the most influential group politically, although he
notes that not allpriestsorhigh priestswere necessarilySadducees(Jerusalem,375-76).
132
7/28/2019 Ossuário e sepultamento de Jesus e Tiago
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/ossuario-e-sepultamento-de-jesus-e-tiago 14/35
Magness: The Burials offesus and James
Bene Hezir and the tomb and ossuaries of the Caiaphas family.44Ossuaries
were used by the same members of Jerusalemsocietywho rejected the concept
of individual, physical resurrection of the dead.45Of course, not all of these
tombs and ossuarieswere used by Sadducees. But undoubtedly manywere. It
is not a coincidence that outside of Jerusalem,the largestcemetery with rock-
cut loculus tombs containing ossuaries is at Jericho,which was the site of the
Hasmonean and Herodianwinter palaces and the center of a priestlycommu-
nity.46Rahmaniargues that the Pharisaicbelief in individual,physicalresurrec-
tion was adopted by the Sadducees by the first century C.E.47But our sources
-Josephus and the NT-date to this period, and in factwere composed in the
late firstcentury.Why assumethat they are anachronistic n this regard?
Instead, I prefer a suggestion made by Lee Levine and Gideon Foerster,
who have each attributedthe appearanceof ossuariesto Roman influence on
44For the former, see Rahmani,"AncientJerusalem'sFuneraryCustoms and Tombs, Part
Three"47; for the latter, see Ronny Reich, "CaiaphasName Inscribed on Bone Boxes,"BAR 18
(1992):38-44, 76. For ossuariesinscribedwith names of deceased identified as priests, see Evans
(Jesusand the Ossuaries,53-54), who lists seven specimens, with additional examples on pp. 104-
11;Frey, CorpusInscriptionum udaicarum, 2:250, no. 1221;Rahmani,CatalogueofJewish Ossu-
aries, 85 no. 41 (perhapsbelonging to the priestlyfamilyBoethos), 250-51 no. 829 (inscribedwith
the names Ananiasand Ananas,perhaps the well-knownhigh priests);259 no. 871 (perhapscon-
taining the remainsof the granddaughterof the high priest Theophilos). For ossuaries inscribed
with the names of deceased who are identified as scribes, see Evans,Jesus and the Ossuaries,56(three specimens); Rahmani,Catalogueof Jewish Ossuaries,262-63 no. 893 (inscribed"Yehosef,
son of Hananya, he scribe").
45Cahill made a similarobservationabout stone vessels: "Ifthe use of stone vessels was a
Pharisaic radition,why are they commonly found furnishingthe homes of the wealthy?"("Chalk
Vessel Assemblages,"233).
46See Rachel Hachlili and Ann Killebrew, "JewishFunerary Customs during the Second
Temple Periodin the Lightof the Excavationsatthe JerichoNecropolis,"PEQ 115 (1983): 109-32.
Rahmani documents ossuaries up to twenty-five kilometers away from Jerusalem (to Tell en-
Nasbeh and CAio the north;RamatRahel and Beth Nattif to the south and southwest;and Beth
Zayitto the west) (CatalogueofJewish Ossuaries,23). Anothergroupof ossuaries s associatedwith
the rock-cut loculus tombs at Jericho(see Hachliliand Killebrew,"JewishFuneraryCustomsdur-
ing the Second Temple Period"),and there is a single stone ossuaryfrom a loculus tomb at Ein
Gedi (see Hadas, Nine Tombsof the Second Temple Period at CEnGedi, 21; this example comes
from the only rock-cuttombwith loculi at Ein Gedi). For an ossuaryfromthe Nabataeancemetery
at Mampsisin the Negev, see n. 56 below. The distributionof rock-cutloculus tombs containing
ossuaries reflects the settlement sphere of Jerusalem's elite, as well as rural elite families who
adoptedthe same displaypractices.Althoughossuaries areusuallyfoundin loculustombs, they can
occur in rock-cut tombs without loculi. For example, four ossuarieswere discovered on a burial
bench in a rock-cut tomb of the late FirstTemple period in Bethlehem that was reused in the late
Second Temple period (see Mikel Dadon, "BurialCaves at Bethlehem" [in Hebrew], 'Atiqot 32
[1997]: 199-201). When the Jewish elite relocated to Galilee in the aftermathof the two Jewishrevolts, they displayed their wealth and status by interring their dead in the catacombs at Beth
Shearim.
47Rahmani,CatalogueofJewish Ossuaries,54.
133
7/28/2019 Ossuário e sepultamento de Jesus e Tiago
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/ossuario-e-sepultamento-de-jesus-e-tiago 15/35
Journalof BiblicalLiterature
Jerusalem'selite.48In the late firstcentury B.C.E.and firstcenturyC.E.crema-
tion was the prevailing burial rite among the Romans.49The ashes of the
deceased were placed in smallstone containerscalledcineraria(cineraryurns).
Like the Judean ossuaries, Roman cinerary urns have lids. The rectangular
cineraryurnsareusuallycasket-shapedandhave gabled lids.50Sometimes they
have carved decoration and/or inscriptions.51Although they are not uncom-
mon, Roman cinerary urns have not been well studied. They are rarely dis-
played or illustrated;only a handfulcan be seen in largermuseums such as the
Metropolitan Museum of Art or the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, and these
examples tend to be exceptionalin terms of their decoration.52
The presence of cineraryurnson Rhodes and in AsiaMinor indicates that
their use was widespread. Stone cinerary urns still containing cremated
remains are displayed in the Archaeological Museum in Afyon in western-centralAnatolia.53Aside from the fact that they contain cremations,the Afyon
urns are virtually identical to the plain Jerusalem ossuaries: the same size,
shape, and with the same kind of lids. Small stone containers or chests
(ostothekai) used for the secondarycollection of bones are also found in Asia
Minor.54Like their Judean counterparts, these stone boxes can have carved
48Levine,Jerusalem, 264-65; Gideon Foerster, "OssilegiumandOssuaries:The Origins and
Significance of a Jewish BurialPractice in the Last Decades of the 1st Century B.C. and the 1stCentury A.D.," in Abstractsof the XVthInternationalCongress of ClassicalArchaeology(Amster-
dam, 1998);idem, "SarcophagusProductionin Jerusalemfromthe Beginning of the Common Era
up to 70 CE," n Sarkophag-Studien, Band 1, Akten des Symposiums 4125 Jahre Sarcophag-
Corpus,<Marburg,4.-7. Oktober1995 (ed. G. Koch;Mainz:Philipp von Zabern,1998), 303-4 n.
54, 309.
49The basic source is still J. M. C. Toynbee, Death and Burial in the RomanWorld (Ithaca,
NY:Cornell UniversityPress, 1971), 40. Also see JohnR. Patterson, "Livingand Dying in the City
of Rome: Houses andTombs," n AncientRome:TheArchaeologyof the Eternal City (ed. J. Coul-
ston and H. Dodge; Oxford:OxfordUniversitySchoolof Archaeology,2000), 273.
50Toynbee, Death and Burial in the RomanWorld,256; MaxwellL. Anderson,"Rome," n
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Greece and Rome (New York:Metropolitan Museum of Art,
2000), 114-15: "Untilthe reign of Hadrian(r. A.D. 117-138), Romanswere more often cremated
than buried, and they were commemoratedby elaboratetombstones, ash urns, or cippi (funerary
altars)."
51Toynbee, Death and Burialin the RomanWorld, 255-56.
52For photos, see Davies, Death, Burial and Rebirthin the Religionsof Antiquity, 124, fig.
14; MarcelloSpanu,"Burial n Asia Minorduringthe Imperialperiod, with a particularreference
to Cilicia andCappadocia," n Burial,Society,and Context n the RomanWorld(ed. J.Pearce,J. M.
Millett, and M. Struck;Oxford:Oxbow,2000), 172, fig. 17.5.
53These cineraryurnsareunpublished.I sawthem duringavisit to the museum in July2003
but was not allowedto photographthem.54See Spanu,"Burial n Asia Minorduring the Imperialperiod,"172, who notes that these
containers are poorly understoodand inadequately published. Some may have contained crema-
tions. For examples from Ephesus, see Selahattin Erdemgil, Ephesus Museum (Istanbul:Do-gu
134
7/28/2019 Ossuário e sepultamento de Jesus e Tiago
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/ossuario-e-sepultamento-de-jesus-e-tiago 16/35
Magness: TheBurialsofJesus andJames
decoration and sometimes contain the remainsof more than one individual.55
Closer to Judea, the Nabatean cemetery at Mampsis in the Negev yielded an
ossuary containing bones wrapped in linen.56 This evidence for the use of
ossuariesin
non-Jewishcontexts supports
thesuggestion
thattheappearance
of
ossilegiumin Judea is relatedto funerarycustomsandfashionsthatwere preva-
lent in the Roman world instead of to Jewish expectations of resurrection.
Finally,the frequent use of the Hebrew or Aramaic erm gelasqma' (fromthe
Greek glossokomon, meaning casket) to refer to Judean ossuaries and the
occurrence on one ossuaryof the word kauka(writtenin Palmyrenescriptand
meaning "amphora"n the sense of a funeraryurn) provide another indication
that Romancineraryurnswere the source of inspiration.57
Rahmaniobjects to Levine'sand Foerster'sproposalon the groundsthat
Jerusalem's lite could not have imitateda practicewith which they were unac-quainted.58However,we have seen that other hellenized featuresin tombs and
burialcustoms were adopted by Jerusalem'selite without personal contact or
familiarity aswere other aspectsof Hellenistic and Romanculture;see below).
Monumentaltombs markedby a pyramidbecame a ragingfashionafterSimon
constructedthe family tomb at Modiin.59The ultimatesource of inspiration or
these tombs was the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus,which presumablynone of
Jerusalem's elite in the Hasmonean period-not even Simon-ever saw.
Loculi,which alsooriginated n the Hellenisticworld,quicklybecameuniversalin Jerusalem's ock-cuttombs.60The spreadof these featureshas little or noth-
ing to do with religious beliefs in the afterlife and everythingto do with social
status. Jerusalem'selite were prohibited by Jewish law from cremating their
Press, no date), 78: "Inthe corner just to the right of the Klazomenaisarcophagusis a series of
ossuariesfoundin the cave of the Seven Sleepers."
55Spanu, "Burial n AsiaMinorduringthe Imperialperiod,"172.
56ArchaeologicalEncyclopediaof the Holy Land (ed. A. Negev and S. Gibson; New York:
Continuum, 2001), 99; AvrahamNegev, "Kurnub," n The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological
Excavations n the Holy Land (ed. E. Stem; New York:SimonandSchuster,1993), 892. I amgrate-
ful to Tali Erickson-Gini for pointing out to me this ossuary, which is on display at Mampsis
(Mamshit), andforproviding me with the publishedreferences.
5*See Rahmani, Catalogue of Jewish Ossuaries, 3. Magen comes close when he observes
that, "Eventhe name gluskoma,derived from the Greek word meaning a wooden coffin, implies
that the formof the chalkossuarywas not originaland that it was an exactreplicaof a wooden cas-
ket"(StoneVesselIndustryin the SecondTemplePeriod, 134). For the reasonsgivenhere, Regev's
objections to the suggestion that Roman cineraryurns were the source of inspiration for Judean
ossuariesarenot valid;see Regev, "IndividualisticMeaningof Jewish Ossuaries,"48 n. 15.
58Rahmani,CatalogueofJewish Ossuaries,58-59.
59As Levine notes, "The tombs that dotted the Jerusalemlandscape are invariablyof Hel-lenistic design but without figuraldepictions. The tholos of Absalom'stomb and the pyramidof
Zechariah's omb areclassicHellenistic architecturalcomponents"(Jerusalem,261).
60Venit,MonumentalTombsof Ancient Alexandria,175-80; McCane,RollBackthe Stone, 7.
135
7/28/2019 Ossuário e sepultamento de Jesus e Tiago
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/ossuario-e-sepultamento-de-jesus-e-tiago 17/35
Journal of BiblicalLiterature
dead. Instead, they could and did adopt the external trappingsof cremationby
depositing the bones of the deceased in ossuaries (urns).61Like loculi, once
ossuariesappeared,they quicklybecame universal n rock-cuttombs.
The practice of recording name(s) on ossuaries should be understood as
reflecting a concern for recording and preserving the memory of the
deceased.62 The preservation of the names of ancestors was of great impor-
tance to the upper classes and priestly families, and above all the high priestly
families, who based their social standing and claims of legitimacyon their lin-
eage.63An ossuarybearingthe Hebrew inscription"houseof David" llustrates
this concern nicely.64
The disappearance of ossuaries supports the suggestion that they were
inspired by Romancineraryurns.If the use of ossuarieswas connected with the
concept of the individual, physical resurrectionof the dead, they should havebecome even more popularafter70 C.E.,when this belief became normative n
Judaism. In fact, the opposite is true.65After 70 C.E.,ossuaries disappeared
from Jerusalem.This is because the Jewishelite who used the rock-cuttombs
were now dead or dispersed. The appearance of cruder ossuaries in Galilee
after 70 is probablyconnected with the emigrationor displacementof some of
Jerusalem'selite to that region after the First Revolt. By the mid-to-late third
century, the custom of ossilegium died out.66At the largest and most presti-
gious cemetery of this period-Beth Shearim n Lower Galilee-the prevailing
burialrite consists of individual nhumationsin large stone sarcophagior hewn
61As McCane notes (discussingthe appearanceof loculi in Judeantombs andthe placement
of coins on the mouthsof the deceased), "Allof these burialcustoms areof Hellenistic origin,so the
ossuary would certainlynot have been the first aspect of Jewishdeath ritualto be touched by the
interactionof Judaismwith Hellenism" (RollBackthe Stone,45).
62See ibid.,14, 46.
63The names were apparently nscribedon the spot by the relativesof the deceased and are
usuallyexecuted carelesslyandclumsily.This is true even amongprominentandhighpriestlyfam-
ilies; see Rahmani, CatalogueofJewish Ossuaries,11-12. Richardsonobserves,"The high priests
were a naturalpart of the religious elite-indeed at the center of it-by virtue of familyassocia-
tions"(Herod,241). Regev notes the social importanceof the inscriptions("IndividualisticMean-
ing of JewishOssuaries,"43). Similarconcernsare evident amongthe Romanaristocracy,as seen in
the late Republicanportraitbusts depictingveryaged men. These may be connected with the wax
ancestral masks that were carried in funerary processions and then displayed in the household
shrinesof aristocratic amilies; see Diana E. E. Kleiner,RomanSculpture(New Haven:YaleUni-
versityPress, 1992), 35-38.
64See Rahmani, Catalogue of Jewish Ossuaries, 173-74 no. 430; Evans, Jesus and the
Ossuaries,103-4.
65See Levine, Jerusalem, 264. Rahmani responds to this objection by arguing that "theincreased mobilityof families andindividuals n this period mayhave renderedossilegiumof rela-
tives impossible"(CatalogueofJewish Ossuaries,55).
66Rahmani,CatalogueofJewish Ossuaries,21.
136
7/28/2019 Ossuário e sepultamento de Jesus e Tiago
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/ossuario-e-sepultamento-de-jesus-e-tiago 18/35
Magness: TheBurialsofJesus andJames
troughs in rock-cut tombs.67Most of the sarcophagiare crude local products
made of limestone, with a few Romanimportsof marble.68Manyof the burial
caves at Beth Shearimbelonged to individualfamilies,but there are also cata-
combs containing burials of different elite families.69The burial customs atBeth Shearim parallelcontemporarydevelopments in Rome and the provinces
during the second and third centuries, when inhumation in large stone sar-
cophagiin catacombssupplantedcremationas the preferredburial rite.70
It is not a coincidence that ossuariesfirst appearedduring Herod'sreign.
Thisperiod is characterizedby a heavydose of Hellenistic-Roman influence on
other aspects of the lifestyle of Jerusalem'selite. Their mansions were deco-
ratedwith Roman-stylewall paintings,stucco, and mosaicsandwere furnished
with locallyproduced stone tables modeled afterRomanprototypes.71As in the
case of the tombs, these featureswere introduced to Judeaby the ruler (in this
case, Herod) and were imitated or adopted by the Jerusalem elite. Nahman
Avigaddescribedthe elite dwellingsin the JewishQuarteras follows:
Constructionin the Upper City was dense, with the houses built quite close
together;butthe individual wellingunitswereextensive, nd nnercourt-
yardsent themthecharacter f luxury illas.Thesehomeswererichly rna-
mentedwithfrescoes,stuccowork,andmosaic loors,andwereequipped
withcomplexbathing acilities,aswell as containing he luxurygoodsand
artisticobjectswhichsignifya highstandard f living.This,then, wasanupperclassquarter,wherethe noblefamiliesof Jerusalemived,withthe
highpriestattheirhead.Heretheybuilt heirhomes naccordance iththe
dominantashionof the Hellenistic-Romaneriod.It is generally ssumed
67Althoughsome ossilegiumwas stillpracticed;see BenjaminMazar,Beth Shecarim:Report
on the Excavations during 1936-1940, vol. 1, Catacombs 1-4 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers
UniversityPress, 1973), 135. NahmanAvigad notes that at Beth Shearim,"Thesmallniches (bone
depositories),so
common inthe
earliercatacombs,are
almostcompletely
absent" n tombs datingto the mid-third century and later (Beth Shecarim, vol. 3, The Excavations 1953-1958 [New
Brunswick,NJ:RutgersUniversityPress, 1976], 267).
68For the stone andmarblesarcophagi rom Beth Shearim,aswell as a smallnumberof lead,
clay,andwood specimens, see Avigad,Beth Shecarim,136-83.
69See Mazar,Beth She'arim,132-33; Avigad,Beth She'arim, 262-65 (compareandcontrast
Catacombs 14 and20).
70See Toynbee, Death and Burial in the RomanWorld,40. McCane,noting the Hellenistic
and Roman elements in the Beth Shearimtombs, describes this cemetery as "acase study in the
ancientconversationbetween Judaismand Hellenism"(RollBackthe Stone,7).
n1See Nahman Avigad,Discovering Jerusalem (Nashville:Thomas Nelson, 1983), 83-203;
for the wall paintings, see Silvia Rozenberg, "WallPainting Fragments from Area A,"in JewishQuarter Excavations n the Old CityofJerusalemconducted by Nahnman vigad, 1969-1982, vol. 2,
TheFinds rom AreasA, W and X-2,FinalReport(ed. H. Geva;Jerusalem: sraelExplorationSoci-
ety, 2003), 302-28.
137
7/28/2019 Ossuário e sepultamento de Jesus e Tiago
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/ossuario-e-sepultamento-de-jesus-e-tiago 19/35
Journal of BiblicalLiterature
that the Jerusalemite nobility was of the Sadducee faction. ... Thus, it can be
assumed that this quarter was occupied chiefly by Sadducees.72
The impactof Hellenistic and Romaninfluence on Jerusalem's lite is evi-
dent in nearly all aspects of Jerusalem'smaterial culture,with a wide range ofimportedandlocally producedconsumergoods appearingaround20-10 B.C.E.
As Renate Rosenthal-Heginbottom observed in her discussion of ceramic
importsfrom the JewishQuarterexcavations:"theimportedpotteryfrom Area
A is clear evidence for the substantialchanges in lifestyle, culinary astes, trade
connections, and marketing strategies which took place during the reign of
Herod; yet it was relevantto a minorityonly [the elite]."73For example, East-
ern Sigillata A (ESA), a fine red-slipped ware produced in Syria-Phoenicia,
becomes relativelycommon in Herod'spalaces in Jerichoand Jerusalemand in
the homes of Jerusalem'swealthiest Jews beginning around20-10 B.C.E.74At
the same time, a high-quality, hin-walledtablewarepainted with delicate floral
designs (usually referred to as Jerusalem[ite] painted pottery and consisting
mostly of bowls) began to be produced in Jerusalem.75Other ceramic imports
that appeared in Jerusalem during Herod's reign (albeit in small quantities)
include Italian thin-walled ware, Cypriot Eastern SigillataD, Western Terra
Sigillata,and Pompeian Red Ware.76Rosenthal-Heginbottom concluded that
72Avigad,DiscoveringJerusalem,83.73Renate Rosenthal-Heginbottom, "Hellenistic and Early Roman Fine Ware and Lamps
from AreaA," inJewish QuarterExcavations n the Old City of Jerusalemconductedby Nahman
Avigad, 1969-1982, vol. 2, ed. Geva, 220.
74For a recent discussionof the source of ESA, see KathleenW. Slane,who believes thatthe
evidence points to northern Syria("TheFine Wares," n TelAnafaII, i: TheHellenisticand Roman
Pottery [ed. S. C. Herbert;Journalof RomanArchaeologySupplementarySeries 10;Ann Arbor:
KelseyMuseum of Archaeology,1998], 272);alsosee KathleenW. Slane,J.MichaelElam, Michael
D. Glascock,and Hector Neff, "CompositionalAnalysisof Eastern SigillataA and Related Wares
from Tel Anafa (Israel),"Journal of ArchaeologicalScience 21 (1994): 51-64. For examples from
Jerusalem'sJewish Quarter,see Avigad,DiscoveringJerusalem,88. Rosenthal-Heginbottomnotes
that ESA may have already been imported to Jerusalembeginning in the mid-firstcentury B.C.E.
("Hellenisticand Early Roman Fine Ware and Lamps,"214). Even so, most of it dates from the
reign of Herod on. Imported waresalso maketheir firstappearance n the palacesatJerichoin the
middle of Herod'sreign;see Bar-Nathan,Hasmonean and HerodianPalacesatJericho, 197.
75MalkaHershkovitz,"JerusalemitePaintedPotteryfromthe Late Second Temple Period,"
in The Nabataeans in the Negev (ed. R. Rosenthal-Heginbottom;Haifa:Hecht Museum, 2003),
31*; Rosenthal-Heginbottom,"Hellenisticand EarlyRomanFine Wareand Lamps,"212; Isadore
Perlman,JanGunneweg, and JosephYellin,"Pseudo-NabataeanWare and Potteryof Jerusalem,"
BASOR262 (1986): 77-82.
76Rosenthal-Heginbottom, "Hellenistic and Early Roman Fine Ware and Lamps,"209,
214-17. Some of the stone vessels manufactured n the Jerusalemareaimitatedthe shapes of thesefine wares; see Magen, Stone Vessel Industry in the Second Temple Period, 65, 66, 68, 70, 72;
Cahill, "ChalkVessel Assemblages,"202, 204. Monopodialstone tables from the Jewish Quarter
also imitated Romanprototypes(ibid.,217).
138
7/28/2019 Ossuário e sepultamento de Jesus e Tiago
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/ossuario-e-sepultamento-de-jesus-e-tiago 20/35
Magness: TheBurialsofJesus and James
"[t]heappearanceof Italianpans in the houses of the upper classJewishinhab-
itants in Jerusalem means that . . . Jews were open to Roman culinary influ-
ences and prepared to try and taste new food. Herod the Great could have
become acquaintedwith the dish during his stayin Rome, had it introducedto
his household, whence it was copied by others."77Similarly,Avigadobserved
that the discovery of Italian wine amphorasin the elite houses of Jerusalem's
Jewish Quarter ndicates that "therehave alwaysbeen more and less observant
Jews."78Donald Arielhas noted that we stilldo not knowwhen lawsprohibiting
the eating of Gentile food originatedandbecame common.79The evidence for
the preparationand consumptionof Gentile-style foods andimported wines by
members of Jerusalem's elite supports a suggestion that the Sadducees
restrictedtheir observanceof purityconcerns to the temple cult, in contrastto
the Phariseesand Essenes.8"Steven Fine attributesthe appearanceof ossuariesto the development of
Jerusalem's tone industry.8sAlthoughI do not accept this proposal,Fine is cor-
rect that the production of ossuaries (and other stone vessels) is one aspect of
Jerusalem'seconomy during the late Second Temple period.82The heavydose
of Romanculturalinfluence evident in Jerusalem around 20-10 B.C.E. hould
be understoodwithin the context of contemporaryevents. It was duringthese
years that Herod undertookthe reconstructionof the Jerusalemtemple.83He
established a theater and an amphitheater (or hippodrome) in Jerusalem, in
which athletic competitions, chariot races, and musical and dramaticcontestswere held (Josephus,Ant. 15.8.1).84Herod also maintainedclose contactswith
Augustus. Peter Richardsonpoints out that "Herod developed his friendship
77Rosenthal-Heginbottom, "HellenisticandEarlyRomanFine Wareand Lamps,"217.
7sAvigad,DiscoveringJerusalem,88.
79Donald T. Ariel, "ImportedGreek StampedAmphoraHandles," nJewish QuarterExca-
vations in the Old City ofJerusalemconductedby NahmanAvigad,1969-1982, vol. 1,Architecture
and Stratigraphy:Areas A, W and X-2, Final Report (ed. H. Geva;Jerusalem:Israel Exploration
Society,2000), 277.80See ibid., 278; Magness, Archaeologyof Qumran.This also supportsRichardson's ugges-
tion thatwealth andsocial statusratherthanreligiousviewswere the most obvious featuresof Sad-
duceeism duringHerod'stime (Richardson,Herod,253).
81Fine, "Note on Ossuary Burial," 73-74. On p. 75 Fine notes that only wealthy Jeru-
salemitescould affordsecondaryburial(and,bywayof extension,intermentin rock-cuttombs).
82See ibid., 74. Cahillnotes that the stone vessels andossuariesare contemporary,although
she seems to favor a first-centuryC.E.(insteadof late-first-centuryB.C.E.)date fortheirappearance
("ChalkVessel Assemblages,"231-32).
83See Fine, "Noteon OssuaryBurial,"72. Althoughconstructionon and aroundthe Temple
Mountcontinued fordecades (andwascompleted onlyin 64 C.E.),muchof the work on the temple
building (the Sanctuary)was apparentlycarriedout between ca. 23 and 15 B.C.E.; ee Richardson,Herod, 197, 238, 245. For a discussionof the contradictorydatesprovidedbyJosephusandthe sug-
gestion thatconstructioncommenced in 20/19 B.C.E., ee Levine,Jerusalem,224-26.
84See Richardson,Herod,223; Levine,Jerusalem,201.
139
7/28/2019 Ossuário e sepultamento de Jesus e Tiago
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/ossuario-e-sepultamento-de-jesus-e-tiago 21/35
Journalof BiblicalLiterature
with Augustusthroughhis children'seducation."85n 22 B.C.E.,Herod sent his
sons Alexander and Aristobulus(by his Hasmoneanwife Mariamme)to Rome
to be educated. Alexanderand Aristobulusremained in Rome for five years,
staying first withPollio
and then withAugustus (Ant.
15.10.1). A couple of
years later (20 B.C.E.),Augustus traveled to Syria, where he was hosted by
Herod.86In 17 B.C.E.,Herod traveled to Rome to visit Augustus,returningto
Judea with his sons, who were now young men about nineteen and eighteen
years of age (Ant. 16.4.4-5). Two years later (15 B.C.E.)Herod entertained
Augustus'sson-in-lawand heir apparent,MarcusAgrippa, akinghim on a tour
of his kingdom (Ant. 16.2.3).87The appearanceof ossuariesand other aspects
of Romanization n Jerusalemshould be understood in the context of the close
contacts and interactions between Augustus and his family, on the one hand,
and Herod and his family, on the other. It is not surprising that beginning
around20 B.C.E., he style of life-and death-of Jerusalem's lite was heavily
influenced by Roman culture.
IV. The Burialof Jesus
The preceding review of Jewish tombs and burial customs has provided
the backgroundnecessary forunderstanding he mannerin which Jesus andhisbrotherJameswere buried. Accordingto the Gospel accounts, Jesus'body was
removed from the cross on the eve of the Jewish Sabbath (Fridayafternoon)
(Matt 27:57-59; 28:1; Mark15:33-34, 42-43; Luke 23:44, 50-54; John 19:31).
Because Jewish law requires immediate burial and there was no time to pre-
pare a grave,Joseph of Arimatheaplaced Jesus'body in a rock-cuttomb.88The
SynopticGospels are in broadagreement in their descriptionof this event:89
85Richardson,Herod,230.
86Our sources mention that Augustusvisited Syria,but it is not clearwhether this included
Judea;see Richardson,Herod,234.
87Referredto in Nicolaus's speech; see Richardson,Herod,232-33, 263-64.
88See McCane,Roll Backthe Stone,95. Accordingto Jewishlaw (Deut 21:22), burial on the
same day is required even for those guilty of the worst crimes, whose bodies were hanged after
death (see below).
89For a discussion of the differences in the Gospel accounts of this episode, see McCane,
Roll Backthe Stone, 101-2. Here I focus on the accountsof Markand Matthew,which are gener-
allyconsidered to be earlierand more accuratethan that of Luke. The differences between Mark
and Matthewinclude that Joseph is described as a member of the council/Sanhedrin(Mark) or arich man (Matthew) (these two statements are complementary,not contradictory),and Matthew
statesthatthiswasJoseph'sfamilytomb,whereas Markdoes not. Since rock-cuttombsbelonged to
families, I believe that Matthewis accurate n this detail.
140
7/28/2019 Ossuário e sepultamento de Jesus e Tiago
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/ossuario-e-sepultamento-de-jesus-e-tiago 22/35
Magness: The Burials of Jesus and James
Although it was now evening,yet since it was the PreparationDay, that is, the
daybefore the Sabbath,Josephof Arimathea,a highly respected member of
the council, who was himself livingin expectationof the reign of God, made
bold to go to Pilate and ask for Jesus' body. . . . And he [Joseph] bought a
linen sheet and took him down fromthe cross andwrappedhim in the sheet,andlaidhim in a tomb thathadbeen hewn out of the rock, androlled a stone
against the doorwayof the tomb. (Mark 15:42-46)
In the evening a rich mannamed Josephof Arimathea,who hadhimself been
a discipleof Jesus,came. He went to Pilateandaskedhim for Jesus'body ..
Then Josephtook the body andwrappedit in a piece of clean linen, and laid
it in a new tomb that belonged to him, that he had cut in the rock, and he
rolled a great stone over the doorway of the tomb, and went away. (Matt
27:57-60)
Hengel argued that Jesus "died a criminal's death on the tree of shame,"
since crucifixion was a sadistic and humiliating form of corporal punishment
reserved by the Romans for the lower classes (including slaves).90 Hengel's
claim that Jesus was buried in disgrace because he was an executed criminal is
now widely accepted and has become entrenched in scholarly literature.91 In
my opinion, this view is based on a misunderstanding of archaeological evi-
dence and Jewish law. Jesus was condemned by the Roman authorities for
crimes against Rome, not by the Sanhedrin for violating Jewish law. The
Romans used crucifixion to punish rebellious provincials for incitement torebellion and acts of treason; they were considered to be common "bandits."92
For this reason, the local (provincial) governor could impose the penalty of cru-
cifixion to maintain peace and order.93Although victims of crucifixion could be
left on their crosses for days, this was not usually the case.94 According to the
Gospel accounts, Pontius Pilate approved Joseph of Arimathea's request to
remove Jesus' body from the cross for burial.95
The capital sentences listed by the Mishnah do not include crucifixion.
This is because after Judea came under direct Roman rule, crucifixion was
90Martin Hengel, Crucifixion n the AncientWorldand the Follyof the Messageof the Cross
(Philadelphia:Fortress, 1977), 19, 83, 90.
91See, e.g., Evans,Jesus and the Ossuaries, 101; McCane, Roll Back the Stone, 89; John
Dominic Crossan, Who KilledJesus? Exposingthe Roots of Anti-Semitismin the Gospel Story of
the Death of Jesus (New York:HarperSanFrancisco, 1995), 160-63; Raymond E. Brown, The
Death of the Messiah:From Gethsemane o the Grave:A Commentaryon the PassionNarrativesin
the Four Gospels (2 vols.;ABRL; New York:Doubleday, 1994), 2:947.
92Hengel, Crucifixion n the AncientWorld,34, 40, 46-47; VassiliosTzaferis,"Crucifixion-
the ArchaeologicalEvidence," BAR 11 (1985):48.
93Hengel, Crucifixion n the AncientWorld,49.94McCane, Roll Back the Stone, 90, 105; Brown, Death of the Messiah, 2:1207; contra
Crossan,WhoKilledJesus, 160-61.
95See McCane,RollBackthe Stone,92-93.
141
7/28/2019 Ossuário e sepultamento de Jesus e Tiago
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/ossuario-e-sepultamento-de-jesus-e-tiago 23/35
Journalof BiblicalLiterature
imposed onlyby the Romanauthorities.96Those found guiltyby the Sanhedrin
of violating Jewish lawwere executed by stoning (likeJames),or were burned,
decapitated, or strangled:"Fourmodes of execution were given in the court:
stoning, burning, decapitation,and strangulation" m. Sanh. 7:1).97According
to biblical law (Deut 21:22), the bodies of executed criminalscould be hanged
for the purpose of public display only afterthey were alreadydead.98The Has-
monean king AlexanderJanneusviolated biblical law when he had eight hun-
dred Pharisee opponents crucified (hangedwhile they were still alive), dining
with his concubines as his victims writhed in agony (Josephus,J.W 1.4.6;Ant.
13.14.2).99Janneus'sactions are described as an atrocity n the Pesher Nahum
from Qumran (4Q169 frags.3-4), where the distinctionbetween the hanging
of a dead body and the crucifixion of a living victim is made explicit: "who
hanged living men [fromthe tree, committing an atrocitywhich had not beencommitted] in Israel since ancient times, for it is [hor]riblefor the one hanged
alive from the tree."100
Hanging (of an alreadyexecuted criminal)is described in m. Sanh. 6:4 as
follows:"Howdo they hanghim?They driveapost into the ground,andabeam
juts out from it, and they tie together his two hands, and thus do they hang
him."This passage describes the handsof the deceased being tied together and
the body danglingfrom a pole. In contrast,Roman crucifixion nvolvedspread-
ing apartthe armsof a live victim, so that he/she could be affixedto the cross-
beam by ropes or nails.101Josephus knew the difference between biblical
96See Hengel, Crucifixion n the Ancient World, 85: "fromthe beginning of direct Roman
rule crucifixionwas taboo as a form of the Jewishdeath penalty."Also see Tzaferis,"Crucifixion-
the ArchaeologicalEvidence," 48: "Amongthe Jews crucifixionwas an anathema. . . . The tradi-
tionalmethod of execution amongthe Jewswasstoning. .. At the end of the firstcenturyB.C., the
Romansadopted crucifixionas an official punishment for non-Romansfor certain legally limited
transgressions."
97All translations rom the Mishnahcited in this paper are fromJacobNeusner, The Mish-
nah:A New Translation(New Haven:YaleUniversityPress, 1988).
98GezaVermes,TheCompleteDead Sea Scrolls n English (New York:Penguin, 1998), 473.
Also see RichardBauckham("ForWhat Offence WasJames Put to Death?"inJamestheJust and
Christian Origins [ed. B. Chilton and C. A. Evans; Leiden: Brill, 1999], 221), who notes that
accordingto Jewishlaw,"hanging s not a method of executionbut the exposureof an alreadydead
corpse.
99See also Hengel, Crucifixion n the AncientWorld,84, with references.
100Florentino GarciaMartinezand Eibert J. C. Tigchelaar, The Dead Sea ScrollsStudy Edi-
tion (GrandRapids:Eerdmans,2000), 337. Accordingto the Mishnah, hangingwas reserved for
executed criminalswho were alreadydead, asprescribedby the Hebrew Bible. In contrast,accord-
ing to the TempleScroll(11Q19 LXIV.7-8),traitorsareto be put to deathbybeing hangedalive:"If
a manpasseson informationagainsthis people orbetrayshispeople to a foreignnation,ordoes evilagainsthis people, you shallhanghim on a tree andhe will die"(fromMartinezandTigchelaar,The
Dead Sea ScrollsStudyEdition, 1287;alsosee Vermes,CompleteDead Sea Scrolls n English, 473).101Althoughthe exact mannerin which the body was affixedto the cross is debated;for two
142
7/28/2019 Ossuário e sepultamento de Jesus e Tiago
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/ossuario-e-sepultamento-de-jesus-e-tiago 24/35
Magness: TheBurialsof esus andJames
hangingand Romancrucifixion.When referringto the hangingof a deadvictim
in the biblical sense, he employs the verb Kpejgdvvu t ("to hang"), as, for exam-
ple: "He that blasphemeth God let him be stoned, and let him hang (Kpe-
pdoco) [upon a tree] all that day"(Ant.4.8.6).
In contrast,Josephususes
theverb dvacratp6c ("tocrucify")when describingthe crucifixionof live victims
at the handsof the Romanauthoritiesaswell as the Hasmonean kingAlexander
Janneus:"he [AlexanderJanneus]ordered about eight hundred of them to be
crucified(dva~ apocatu)" (Ant.13.14.2);"asI came back,I sawmanycaptives
crucified (dve tavpcoivouS)" (Life 75 §420).102All of these sources (Jose-
phus, the Mishnah, and sectarian literature) clearly distinguish between the
hangingof dead victims (followingbiblical law) and the crucifixion of live vic-
tims.103The following passage from Josephus indicates that the Jews buried
victims of Roman crucifixionby sunset in accordancewith Deut 21:22: "Nay,they proceeded to that degree of impiety, as to cast awaytheir bodies without
burial,althoughthe Jews used to take so much care of the burialof men, that
they took down those thatwere condemned and crucified (ave~TaupoivouS)),
andburied them before the going down of the sun"(J.W 4.5.2).104
The Sanhedrin excluded those executed for violating Jewish law from
burialin familytombs or burialgrounds:"Andthey did not bury [the felon] in
the burialgroundsof his ancestors.But there were two graveyardsmade ready
forthe use of the court,one forthose who were beheaded or strangled,andone
for those who were stoned or burned"(m. Sanh. 6:5). However, the Mishnahattaches no stigma to crucifixionby the Roman authorities and does not pro-
hibitvictimsof crucifixion rombeing buriedwith their families.105 he discov-
different reconstructionssee Tzaferis, "Crucifixion-the ArchaeologicalEvidence," 49; Zias and
Sekeles, "CrucifiedMan, 27). Ziasand Sekeles note that death resulted from asphyxiationandnot
from the traumacaused by nailing the body to the cross ("CrucifiedMan,"26).
102 n light of the questions surrounding he relationshipbetween Luke and Acts, it is inter-
esting that in these two books (but not in Markand Matthew), the distinction between hangingand
crucifixion s blurred,with the Greek terms being used interchangeably.See Luke 23:39:"Oneofthe criminalswho was hanging there (KpeaonG vTcvov)bused him";Acts 5:30: "The God of our
forefathersraisedJesus to life when you had hung him on a cross (KpedcCavegsIeit'6Xo) and
killedhim."I thankBart Ehrmanforbringing this to my attention.
103ContraCrossan,WhoKilledJesus, 166.
104Contra bid., 166, 169. In my opinion,Josephus'srhetoricaluse of this episode to illustrate
the impietyof the rebels (in this case, Idumeans)does not affect the value of his testimonyregard-
ing the burialof crucifixionvictimsin accordancewith Jewishlaw.ForJosephus'scondemnationof
the rebels' lawless and impious behavior, see Shaye J. D. Cohen, Josephus in Galilee and Rome
(Boston: Leiden, 2002), 88, 97; Tessa Rajak,Josephus: The Historian and His Society (London:
Duckworth,1983), 81.
105See Brown, Death of the Messiah,2:1210, although he presents the opposite conclusionon p. 1243. Accordingto Josephus,blasphemers who were stoned andthen hanged were "buried n
anignominiousand obscure manner" Ant.4.8.6). However,Jesuswasnot condemned by the San-
hedrin for violatingJewishlaw, was not executed by stoning, and was alivewhen he was crucified
143
7/28/2019 Ossuário e sepultamento de Jesus e Tiago
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/ossuario-e-sepultamento-de-jesus-e-tiago 25/35
Journalof BiblicalLiterature
ery of the remains of a crucified man named Yohanan n an ossuarydemon-
stratesthatvictimsof crucifixioncould be interredin rock-cutfamilytombs.106
John Dominic Crossanclaimsthat Yohanan'snterment in a rock-cutfam-
ily tomb is exceptional and extraordinarybecause victims of crucifixionwould
not have received an honorable burial.107However, we have seen that Jewish
law does not prohibit the burial of victims of crucifixion in family tombs.
Crossan argues that "with all those thousands of people crucified around
Jerusalem n the firstcentury alone,we have so farfound onlya single crucified
skeleton, and that, of course, preserved in an ossuary.Was burial then, the
exception rather than the rule, the extraordinary rather than the ordinary
case?"'s0 n fact, the exact opposite is the case: the discoveryof the identifiable
remainsof even a single victim of crucifixion s exceptional.Crossan'sassump-
tion that we should have the physical (archaeological) remains of additionalcrucifiedvictimsis erroneousfor severalreasons. First,with one exception (the
repository n the late Iron Age cemetery at Ketef Hinnom), not a single undis-
turbed tomb in Jerusalemhas ever been discoveredand excavatedby archaeol-
ogists.109This means that even in cases where tombs or ossuariesstill contain
the originalphysical remains, the skeletons are often disturbed, damaged, or
incomplete. Second, the Jerusalemelite who owned rock-cutfamily tombs with
ossuaries favored the preservationof the status quo through accommodation
with the Romans.Presumably,relativelyfew of them were therefore executed
by crucifixion. Instead, the majority of victims crucified by the Romansbelonged to the lower classes110-precisely those who could not affordrock-cut
tombs. Third, and most important, the nail in Yohanan'sheel was preserved
onlybecause of a fluke:
(not hanged after death). Therefore, it is erroneous to applythis passage to Jesus'execution and
burial.On the other hand,this halakahwould have appliedto James,who was apparentlyexecuted
by stoningforviolatingJewishlawandthereforewould havebeen ineligible forburial n a rock-cut
familytomb (see the discussionof James'sburialbelow).
106As Evansnotes (Jesusand the Ossuaries,100-101), contrary o Crossan.Alsosee Tzaferis,
"Crucifixion-the ArchaeologicalEvidence";Rahmani,"AncientJerusalem's FuneraryCustoms
and Tombs, Part Three," 51; idem, Catalogue of Jewish Ossuaries, 131 no. 218. According to
McCane, "Dishonorableburialwas reserved for those who had been condemned by the people of
Israel"(RollBackthe Stone,99; emphasisin original).Despite this, McCaneconcursthatJesuswas
buried in shame. The prominence of Yohanan's amilyis indicated by the fact that anotherossuary
fromthis tombwasinscribed"Simon, he builder of the temple,"apparently omeone who hadpar-
ticipatedin the reconstructionof the temple under Herod;see Tzaferis,"Crucifixion-the Archae-
ologicalEvidence," 47, 50; Brown,Death of the Messiah,2:1210.
107Crossan,Who KilledJesus, 168; idem, The HistoricalJesus: TheLife of a Mediterranean
Peasant(New York:HarperSanFrancisco,1991), 391.
10s bid.109For the intact repositoryat Ketef Hinnom, see Barkay,"News from the Field: The Divine
Name Found in Jerusalem."
110As Crossan notes (WhoKilledJesus, 169).
144
7/28/2019 Ossuário e sepultamento de Jesus e Tiago
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/ossuario-e-sepultamento-de-jesus-e-tiago 26/35
Magness: The Burials of Jesus and James
Themost dramatic vidence hatthisyoungmanwascrucifiedwasthe nail
whichpenetrated is heelbones.Butforthisnail,we mightneverhavedis-
covered hat heyoungmanhaddied nthisway.Thenailwaspreserved nlybecause it hit a hard knot when it was pounded into the olive wood upright of
the cross.The olivewood knotwasso hardthat,as the blowson the nailbecameheavier, he endof the nail bentandcurled.We founda bitof the
olivewood(between1and2 cm)onthe tipofthenail.Thiswoodhadproba-blybeenforcedoutoftheknotwhere hecurlednailhookednto t. When t
came imeofthedeadvictim obe removedrom hecross, he executioners
couldnotpulloutthisnail,bentas it waswithin he cross.Theonlywayto
remove hebodywastotakeanaxorhatchetandamputatehefeet.111
In other words, the means by which victims were affixed to crosses usually
leave no discernible traces in the physical remains or archaeological record.
Some victims were bound with ropes, which were untied when the body was
removedfromthe cross.112When victimswere nailedto a cross,the nailshadto
be pulled out so that the body could be taken down. This is exactly how the
Gospel of Peter (6:21) describes Jesus' crucifixion:"Andthen they drew the
nails from the hands of the Lord and placed him on the earth.""3The nail in
Yohanan's nkle was preserved only because it bent after hitting a knot in the
wood andtherefore could not be removed fromthe body.
Jesus came from a family of modest means that presumably could not
afford a rock-cut tomb.114Had Joseph not offered Jesus a spot in his tomb(accordingto the Gospel accounts),Jesuslikely would have been disposedof in
the manner of the poorer classes: in an individual trench grave dug into the
ground. In the Iron Age kingdoms of Israel and Judah, non-elite burialscon-
sisted of individual nhumations n simple cist graves.115 his custom continued
through the Second Temple period, when individualswere buried in trench
11 Tzaferis, "Crucifixion-the ArchaeologicalEvidence,"50 (myemphasis). In their reexam-
inationof this skeleton,Ziasand Sekeles foundno evidence foramputation,but confirmedthatthe
nail could not be removed from the heel bone because it was bent: "Oncethe body was removed
from the cross, albeit with some difficultyin removingthe right leg, the condemned man'sfamily
would now find it impossibleto remove the bent nailwithoutcompletely destroyingthe heel bone"
("CrucifiedMan,"24, 27).
112Tzaferis,"Crucifixion-the ArchaeologicalEvidence,"49; also see Crossan, Who Killed
Jesus, 135, for a descriptionfromthe Actsof Andrew.
113From Brown, Death of the Messiah,2:1319.
11"Had Jesus' familyowned a rock-cuttomb, it presumablywould have been located near
theirhome in Nazareth. But in light of what we know of Jesus'familyandhis background,there is
no reason to assume they could afforda rock-cut tomb. See, e.g., Crossan (HistoricalJesus, 29),
who discusses the low socialstandingof carpenters n the Romanworld.1u NormaFranklin,"TheTombs of the Kingsof Israel:Two Recently Identified 9th-Century
Tombs from OmrideSamaria,"ZDPV 119 (2003): 1. I amgratefulto Franklinforgivingme an off-
printof this article.
145
7/28/2019 Ossuário e sepultamento de Jesus e Tiago
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/ossuario-e-sepultamento-de-jesus-e-tiago 27/35
Journalof BiblicalLiterature
graves. The body of the deceased was wrapped in a shroud and sometimes
placed in a wooden coffin;it was then laid in a hollowed-out space (sometimes
described as a "loculus" n modern literature) at the base of the trench. After
the trench was filled in, a rough headstone was sometimes erected at one end.
The headstones were uninscribed, though some mayhave had painted decora-
tion or inscriptionsthathave not survived.
Because trench graves are poor in finds and are much less conspicuous
and more susceptible to destructionthan rock-cuttombs, relativelyfew exam-
ples are recorded.116The best-known cemetery of this type is at Qumran.117t
is interesting that despite the presence of numerous caves around the settle-
ment, the Qumrancommunitydid not intertheir dead in caves.118 believe this
reflects the ascetic and communal nature of the sect and their rejection of the
Hellenized/Romanized lifestyle (and death style) of the Jerusalem elite.119Instead, the Qumrancommunitychose to burytheir dead in the mannerof the
poorer classes. The gravesat Qumran have headstones (stelae) markingone or
both ends. They differ from trench graves at other sites in being covered with
heaps of stones, as Rolandde Vauxnoted: "Thetombs [graves]are marked by
oval-shapedheaps of stones appearingon the surface,often with a largerstone
at either end."'12 n myopinion, the heaps of stones covering the graves andthe
large stones set up at both ends were intended to make the graves visible to
passersby,so they could avoidthem out of purityconcerns.'21
Other graves of this type have been found at Ein el-Chuweir and in
116See Joseph Patrich, "Graves and Burial Practices in Talmudic Sources," in Graves and
BurialPractices n Israelin the AncientPeriod (ed. I. Singer;Jerusalem:YadIzhakBen-Zvi, 1994),
191-92. In Rome, too, the poor were buried in simple holes dug into the ground; see Davies,
Death, Burial,and Rebirth n the Religionsof Antiquity, 148. The corpsesof paupersandcriminals
were disposedof in mass graves;see John Bodel, "Graveyards ndGroves:A Studyof the Lex Luce-
rina,"AmericanJournalof AncientHistory 11 (1994):38.117See Magness, Archaeology of Qumran, 168-75, with bibliographyon 186-87; Patrich,
"Gravesand BurialPractices n TalmudicSources,"192.
11sThis despite the factthatthe wealthier(includinghigh priestly)residents of Jericho to the
north and those at Ein Gedi to the south interred their dead in rock-cuttombs (for Jericho, see
Hachlili and Killebrew, "JewishFuneraryCustoms during the Second Temple Period";for Ein
Gedi, see Hadas, Nine Tombsof the SecondTemplePeriodat 'En Gedi.
119Magness, Archaeologyof Qumran, 206.
120Roland de Vaux,Archaeologyand the Dead Sea Scrolls (London:OxfordUniversityPress,
1973), 46.
121Unknowingly walking over a trench grave was common enough to occur in a saying
attributedto Jesus: "Woeto you [Pharisees] for you [are like] indistincttombs (Greek mnemeia),
andpeople walkingon top areunaware" Luke/Q 11:44;see McCane, RollBackthe Stone, 68). This
saying ikelyrefersto trenchgraves,because theywere less visible thanrock-cuttombs,whichweremarkedby pyramidalstructuresor other monumental markers.As McCane notes, unknowingly
walkingover a gravewould havebeen of concernto Jewswho observedpuritylaws(ibid.,70).
146
7/28/2019 Ossuário e sepultamento de Jesus e Tiago
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/ossuario-e-sepultamento-de-jesus-e-tiago 28/35
Magness: TheBurialsofJesus and James
Jerusalem,where they have been identified as Essene burials.122Althoughit is
possible that some or all of those buried in these cemeteries were Essenes,
there is no archaeologicalevidence to support this assumption.The graves in
Jerusalem and at Ein el-Ghuweir are not associated with identifiable remains of
Essene settlements, and they contain proportionate numbers of men, women,
andchildren.123n addition,the graves arenot markedby heaps of stones or by
headstones at both ends.124 n fact, the presence of thousands of graves of this
type in the first- and second-century C.E. Nabatean cemetery at Khirbet
Qazone demonstratesthat they are not associated only with Essenes.125Some
of the headstones at Khirbet Qazone are engraved with symbols of Nabatean
deities.126
When the Gospels tell us that Joseph of Arimatheaoffered Jesus a spot in
his tomb, it is because Jesus'family did not own a rock-cuttomb and there wasno time to prepare a grave-that is, there was no time to dig a grave, not hew a
rock-cuttomb (!)-before the Sabbath.'27 t is not surprising hat Joseph, who
is described as a wealthy Jew and perhaps even a member of the Sanhedrin,
122See Pesach Bar-Adon,"AnotherSettlement of the Judean Desert Sect at CEnel-Ghuweir
on the Shoresof the Dead Sea,"BASOR227 (1977): 12-17; Patrich,"Gravesand BurialPractices
in TalmudicSources,"192 n. 10;Boaz Zissu,"'QumranType' Gravesin Jerusalem:Archaeological
Evidence of an Essene Community?" DSD 5 (1998): 158-71; idem, "Odd Tomb Out: Has
Jerusalem'sEssene Cemetery Been Found?"BAR25 (1999): 50-55, 62. For anothercemetery of
this type in the Judeandesert, see HananEshel andZvi Greenhut,"HIiaml-Sagha:A Cemeteryof
the QumranType, JudaeanDesert,"RB 100 (1993):252-59. Bar-Adonmentions largeheadstones
at the southern end of each grave at Ein el-Ghuweir, but does not describe the heaps of stones
characteristicof Qumran ("AnotherSettlement of the JudeanDesert Sect,"12). He alsonotes that
at Qumran, argestones markboth ends (northandsouth)of each grave.
123See Magness,Archaeologyof Qumran,220-23; Patrich,"Gravesand BurialPracticesin
TalmudicSources,"192 n. 10.
124Zissu, "'QumranType' Graves n Jerusalem,"160; idem, "OddTomb Out,"52.
125See Hershel Shanks, "Who Lies Here? JordanTombs Match Those at Qumran,"BAR 25
(1999): 48-53, 76; Konstantinos D. Politis, "TheNabataeanCemetery at Khirbet Qazone,"Near
Eastern Archaeology62 (1999): 128.126Shanks, "WhoLies Here?"51.
127As we have seen, the Jewish concern that the deceased be buried on the same day is scrip-
turallybased (Deut 21:22;m. Sanh.6:5;for a discussion, see Davies, Death, Burial,and Rebirthin
the Religionsof Antiquity, 102).Thisexplainsthe haste to buryJesus,since the onset of the Sabbath
would have meant delayingthe burialforovertwenty-fourhours.The Mishnahprovidesguidelines
for quickburialswhen death occurs duringa festival:"Theydo not hew out a tomb niche or tombs
on the intermediatedaysof a festival.But they refashiontomb niches on the intermediatedays of a
festival.They dig a graveon the intermediate daysof a festival,and make a coffin, and while the
corpse is in the same courtyard.R. Judah prohibits, unless there were boards [already sawn and
made readyin advance]" (m. Moed Qat. 1:6).The fact that this halakahrefers to rock-cuttombswith loculi suggests it originatedin the late Second Temple period. Alsonote thatthis passagecon-
tainsan explicitreference to gravesdug into the ground.
147
7/28/2019 Ossuário e sepultamento de Jesus e Tiago
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/ossuario-e-sepultamento-de-jesus-e-tiago 29/35
Journal of Biblical Literature
had a rock-cut familytomb.128The Gospel accounts therefore describe Joseph
placing Jesus' body in one of the loculi in his family'stomb. The "new" omb
mentioned by Matthew apparentlyrefers to a previouslyunused loculus. The
Gospel accounts include an accuratedescriptionof Jesus'body being wrapped
in a linen shroud.129When Josephdeparted, he sealed the entranceto the tomb
by blockingthe doorwaywith a rollingstone.130
This understandingof the Gospel accounts removes at least some of the
groundsfor argumentsthat Joseph of Arimatheawas not a followerof Jesus, or
that he was a completely fictional character (although, of course, it does not
prove that Joseph existed or that this episode occurred).131 n addition, the
tomb must have belonged to Joseph's family,because by definition rock-cut
tombs in Jerusalemwere family tombs.132There is no evidence that the San-
hedrin or the Roman authorities paid for and maintained rock-cut tombs forexecuted criminalsfrom impoverishedfamilies.133nstead, these unfortunates
would have been buried in individual trench graves. This sort of tradition is
preserved in the NT reference to the Potter'sField (Matt27:7-8).134Nor is it
necessary to assume that the Gospel accounts of Joseph of Arimatheaoffering
Jesus a place in his familytomb are legendaryor apologetic.135Unlike Crossan,
who "cannotfind any detailed historical information about the crucifixionof
Jesus,"136 believe that the Gospel accounts of Jesus'burialare largelyconsis-
tent with the archaeologicalevidence.'37In other words, althougharchaeology
128Mark 15:43 describes Joseph as "a highly respected member of the council," apparently
the Sanhedrin; ee Brown,Death of the Messiah, 2:1213-14, 1223.
129For discussions, see Brown, Death of the Messiah, 2:1244-46, 1252.
130For a discussion of the type of rolling stone that sealed the tomb in which Jesus' body was
placed, see Amos Kloner,"Dida RollingStoneClose Jesus'Tomb?"BAR25 (1999): 22-29, 76; also
see Brown,Death of the Messiah,2:1247-48.
131For the suggestionthatJosephof Arimatheawas not a followerof Jesus,see Brown,Death
of the Messiah,2:1216-18, 1223-24, 1246; for the claim thathe was a completely fictionalcharac-
ter, see Crossan,WhoKilledJesus, 172-73, 176.
132Contrary o Brown, Death of the Messiah, 2:1249-50.
133Contrary o ibid., 1249: "Adistinguished member of the Sanhedrin,Joseph may have had
access to tombs that served forthose whom the Sanhedrin udged against.Into one of these tombs
nearbythe cross, then, the MarcanJoseph, acting quite consistentlyas a pious law-observantJew,
could have placed the corpse of Jesus." Two erroneous assumptions underlie this statement:
(1) Jesus was condemned and executed by the Sanhedrin for violating Jewish law, not by the
Romanauthoritiesforcrimesagainst Rome (asindicatedby the reference to "tombs hatservedfor
those whom the Sanhedrin udged against");2) rock-cuttombs were maintainedby the governing
authorities.
134See Ritmeyerand Ritmeyer,"Potter'sField or High Priest'sTomb?"
135Brown,Death of the Messiah,2:1272;Evans,Jesus and the Ossuaries,103;McCane, RollBackthe Stone, 103-4.
136Crossan, Who KilledJesus, 159; also see idem, HistoricalJesus, 393.
137As noted also by Evans,Jesus and the Ossuaries, 15: "what he Gospels depict is consistent
148
7/28/2019 Ossuário e sepultamento de Jesus e Tiago
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/ossuario-e-sepultamento-de-jesus-e-tiago 30/35
Magness: TheBurialsofJesus andJames
does not prove that there was a followerof JesusnamedJosephof Arimatheaor
that Pontius Pilate granted his request for Jesus' body, the Gospel accounts
describingJesus' removal from the cross and burialaccordwell with archaeo-
logical evidence and with Jewish law. The source(s) of these accounts werefamiliarwith how wealthyJewslivingin Jerusalemduringthe time of Jesusdis-
posed of their dead.
V. The "JamesOssuary"
After the death of Jesus, his brother James became the leader of Jeru-
salem's early Christiancommunity.138Although marginalizedin later western
Christiantradition, Jamesis widely regardedas a righteous and observantJew.
His pious and ascetic lifestyle earned him the nickname "theJust."139 ven if
the Letter of Jameswas not composed by James(whichis a matterof disagree-
ment), its attributionto Jamessuggests that he was known for his oppositionto
the accumulationof wealth andthe fate of the wealthy,as illustratedby the fol-
lowingpassages:140
with what is knownfrom archaeologyand from literaryand epigraphical sources."Unlike Brown(Deathof the Messiah,2:1271), I find these accountsto be accurate,not "laconic."
138For the sake of convenience I use the term "earlyChristiancommunity" n this paper to
describethe Jewishfollowers of Jesus duringthe second and thirdquartersof the first centuryC.E.
in Jerusalem.For discussionsof James's role in this community with references, see JohnPainter,
JustJames, TheBrotherofJesus in Historyand Tradition(Minneapolis:Fortress, 1999), 3-5; Ben
WitheringtonIII, "TheStoryof James,Son of Joseph,Brotherof Jesus," n Shanks andWithering-
ton, Brotherof esus, 121.
139See Craig A. Evans, "Jesusand James, Martyrsof the Temple," in James the Just and
Christian Origins, ed. Chilton and Evans, 246-47; Douglas J. Moo, TheLetter of James (Grand
Rapids:Eerdmans,2000), 16;Painter,JustJames, 125;Witherington,"Storyof James,"112. Hege-
sippus (in Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. 2.23.4-18) relatesthatJameswas "holyfromhis birth;he drankno
wine or intoxicating iquorand ate no animalfood; no razorcame nearhis head; he did not smear
himself with oil, and he took no baths. He alone was permitted to enter the Holy Place, forhis gar-
ments were not of wool but of linen. He used to enter the Sanctuaryalone, andwasoften found on
his knees beseeching forgivenessforthe people, so thathis knees grewhardlike a camel's."Painter
notes that other early (second century) sources preserve the traditionof James'spious and ascetic
lifestyle (JustJames, 125).
140As Painternotes, "Thevast majorityof modern scholarsquestion the authenticityof the
letter, although its authorshipby James is not without significant defenders" (JustJames, 239).
Witherington believes that James wrote the letter, and he dates it to around 52 C.E. ("Storyof
James," 144, 146); for a similar opinion, see Pedrito U. Maynard-Reid,Poverty and Wealth inJames (Maryknoll,NY:Orbis Books, 1987), 7-8. For discussionsof the argumentsfor and against
James'sauthorship,see David Hutchinson Edgar,Has God Not Chosenthe Poor? The Social Set-
ting of the Epistle of James (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2001), 11, 19-22, 223 (who
149
7/28/2019 Ossuário e sepultamento de Jesus e Tiago
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/ossuario-e-sepultamento-de-jesus-e-tiago 31/35
Journalof Biblical Literature
A brotherof low position ought to be proud of his eminence, but one who is
rich ought to rejoice at being reduced in circumstances,for the richwill dis-
appear like the wild flowers. For the sun comes up with its scorching heat
and dries up the grass,and the flowers wither, and all their beauty is gone.
That is the way rich men will fade and die in the midst of their pursuits.(1:9-11)
Has not God chosen the world'spoor to be rich in faith, and to possess the
kingdom that he promised to those who love him? But you humiliate the
poor. Arenot the rich youroppressors?(2:5-6)
Come now, you rich people! Weep aloud andhowl over the miseries that are
going to overtakeyou! Yourwealth has rotted, your clothes are moth-eaten,
your gold and silver are rusted, and their rustwill testify against you and eat
into your very flesh, for you have stored up fire for the last days.Why, thewages you have withheld from the laborerswho have reaped your harvests
cryaloud,andthe cries of the harvestershave reachedthe earsof the Lordof
Hosts. You have lived luxuriouslyandvoluptuouslyhere on earth. (5:1-5)
John Painter observes, "One of the aspects of James that offers some sup-
port for the view that the epistle has its context in Judaea and Galilee before the
Jewish war is the focus on the exploitation of the poor by the rich."141The neg-
ative views of wealth expressed in the Letter of James are consistent with the
nature of the early Christian community in Jerusalem, which lived a modest,
communal lifestyle although some members came from wealthy families.142 In
this regard the early Christian community in Jerusalem resembled the Qumran
community.143 In 62 or 63, during a hiatus in the office of procurator, the Jew-
believes it is likely a pseudepigraphical composition);Peter H. Davids, "PalestinianTraditionsin
the Epistle of James," nJamestheJustand ChristianOrigins,ed. Chiltonand Evans,33-57 (who
notes on p. 34 that "themost one can demonstratewith a high level of probability s that the mate-
rial in Jamesappearsto come fromthe environmentin which Jameslived andfunctioned andthus
could well stem from James");Moo, Letter of James, 9-22 (who favors authorship by James);
Painter,JustJames,234-48 (whobelieves thatthe letter waswrittenby a Greek-speakingDiaspora
Jewandthat it was"intentionallyattributed"o James). Even if the letter was not writtenby James,
most scholarsseem to agree that it accuratelyreflects his views on wealth; see e.g., Painter,Just
James, 13:"Apart rom the Epistle of James,none of the New Testament texts is written from the
point of view of James."According to Witherington,James'swisdom is intended for the poor and
oppressedversus the rich ("Storyof James,"153).141Painter,JustJames,249. For the theme of wealth andpovertyin the Letter of Jamesand
the modest lifestyleof the earlyChristiancommunity in Jerusalem,see Maynard-Reid,Poverty and
Wealthin James;Edgar, Has GodNot Chosenthe Poor, 133;Moo, LetterofJames,35-36.
142See, e.g., Painter,JustJames, 249: "The poverty of the early Jerusalem church is well
attested by Paul and the author of Acts. .... In Jerusalemthe believers experimentedwith an earlyform of 'communism,'that is, of giving up the privateownershipof land and resourcesto provide
resources forall."
143Witherington explicitly compares the early Christiancommunity in Jerusalemwith the
150
7/28/2019 Ossuário e sepultamento de Jesus e Tiago
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/ossuario-e-sepultamento-de-jesus-e-tiago 32/35
Magness: TheBurialsofJesus and James
ish high priest Ananus took advantageof the opportunity to condemn James
and had him executed by stoning. James'sopposition to the wealthy, who of
course included the high priests, may explain why Ananus had him put to
death.144Josephus provides a contemporary account of this episode: "so he
[Ananusthe high priest] assembled the sanhedrin of the judges, and brought
before them the brother of Jesus, who was called Christ, whose name was
James,and some others [orsome of his companions;]andwhen he had formed
an accusation against them as breakers of the law, he delivered them to be
stoned"(Ant.20.9.1).145
According to the second-centuryC.E.church historianHegesippus (cited
in Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. 2.23.4-18), James was buried just below the Temple
Mount (presumably n the areaof the KidronValleyor Mountof Olives).Hege-
sippusmentions that in his
time thestele marking he gravecould stillbe
seen:Sotheywentupandthrewdown heJustone.Thentheysaid o eachother"LetusstoneJameshe Just," ndbegan ostonehim,as inspiteofhisfallhewasstillalive. . . Thenoneof them,a fuller, ook heclubwhichhe usedto
beattheclothes,andbroughtt downontheheadof theJustone.Suchwashismartyrdom. e wasburiedon the spot,bythe Sanctuary, ndhis stone
(stele)is still there by the Sanctuary. in Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. 2.23.15-18)
Ben Witheringtonargues that the "Jamesossuary" hould be understood
as the stele described by Hegesippus.146However, we have no contemporary
examples of the use of the word stele to describe an ossuary. Ossuaries are
referred to in ancient inscriptions and literary sources by the Greek words
ostophagosand glkssokomon,and in Hebrew andAramaicasgelasqmd', 'ar6n,
or halat.'47The Greek wordstele (Hebrew massbd) denotes a stone such as a
Essenes ("Storyof James,"115). For the suggestionthat the Essenes' negativeattitudetowardthe
accumulationof wealth and glorificationof poverty influenced the Jesus movement, see Magen
Broshi, "Matrimonyand Poverty:Jesus and the Essenes," RevQ 19 (2000): 632-34; idem, "What
JesusLearnedfromthe Essenes,"BAR 30 (2004):32-37, 64; RobertEisenman,Jamesthe Brother
of Jesus: The Key to Unlockingthe Secrets of Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls (New
York:Penguin, 1997), 4.
144See Painter,JustJames, 251, 264. Bauckhamsuggests that Jameswas executed for blas-
phemy or for leadingastray he town ("ForWhatOffence Was JamesPut to Death?"229).
145Unlike in the case of Josephus'smore controversialreference to Jesus (Ant. 18.3.3), most
scholarsdo not believe this passagewas added or substantiallyaltered by later Christiancopyists;
see Bauckham,"ForWhatOffence WasJamesPut to Death?"198; Witherington,"Storyof James,"
168.
146 bid., 187, 188. Witherington incorrectly (and misleadingly)translatesthe Greek word
stele here as "inscribed stone" (my emphasis). Painter renders it more accuratelyas "headstone"
(JustJames, 123).147For discussions of these terms, see Rahmani,Catalogue of Jewish Ossuaries, 3; Evans,
Jesus and the Ossuaries, 11. For an ossuaryinscribed twice with the Greek word ostophagos,see
Avigad, "JewishRock-CutTombs in Jerusalem,"141. For an ossuaryreferred to in Palymreneas
151
7/28/2019 Ossuário e sepultamento de Jesus e Tiago
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/ossuario-e-sepultamento-de-jesus-e-tiago 33/35
Journalof BiblicalLiterature
cippus or headstone. Stelae were used to markindividual trench graves dug
into the ground, whereas monumental columnar, pyramidal, or conical
nephas6twere erected aboveunderground rock-cuttombs.
Jesus was laid in a rock-cuttomb because he was removed from the cross
on the eve of the Sabbath,when there was no time to dig a trench grave for
him, and because a wealthy follower offered a loculus in his own familytomb.
However, none of our sources indicates that James was placed in a rock-cut
tomb. To the contrary,all availableevidence suggests the opposite. As we have
seen, the family of Jesus and James presumably could not afford a rock-cut
tomb.148Even if James's amilyowned a rock-cut tomb, the fact thatJameswas
executed by stoning for violating Jewishlaw means that his remains could not
have been placed in it (m. Sanh. 6:5).149And as we have seen, there is no evi-
dence that the Sanhedrinpaid for and maintainedrock-cuttombs for executedcriminals.Instead, these unfortunatesmust have been buried in trench graves,
in the mannerof the poorer classes. Unlike Jesus,James did not die on the eve
of a Sabbath or holiday, which means there would have been time to dig a
trench grave for him. And finally,James's opposition to the accumulation of
wealth andthe wealthymakesit hardto believe thathe wouldhavebeen buried
in the kind of rock-cut tomb that was a hallmarkof the elite lifestyle. We have
seen that James'sconflict with the Jerusalemelite might even have led to his
execution: "James's onflict with Ananuswas a result of his opposition to the
exploitationof the poorby the richaristocraticrulingclassandin particular heexploitation of the poor rural priesthood by the aristocratic urban chiefpriests."50
Some scholars have suggested that the early Christian community of
Jerusalemchose to "honor"James by preparinga rock-cut tomb for him or by
offering him a spot in one of their familytombs.'15Although I cannot exclude
kauka ("amphora"n the sense of "urn"), ee Frey, CorpusInscriptionumludaicarum, 2:250 no.
1222; Rahmani,Catalogueof Jewish Ossuaries,3. For ossuaries inscribed with the word "tomb"
(probably referring to the ossuary), see Rahmani, Catalogue of Jewish Ossuaries, 109 no. 125(kibra);198 no. 561 (topou).
148Accordingto Witherington,Josephwould havepassed the familytradeof carpentryon to
his sons:"Whilecarpentersdid not rankat the high end of the social structureof society, neither
were they atthe low end. ... even awoodworkerwho simplybuilt furnituremightexpect to makea
livingthatcould supportthe family" "Storyof Jesus,"101). Alsosee Crossan,HistoricalJesus, 29.
149Assuming thatthe prohibitiondescribed in the Mishnahwasin effect in the second half of
the firstcentury C.E.
150Painter,Just James, 140.
151See, e.g., Witherington, "Storyof James," 171: "The Jewish Christianswho buried James
evidentlywantedto
honorhim in death, andtheyapparently
expected some would come andvisitthe burial spot and see the inscription written on the side of the box."If the inscription on the
"Jamesossuary"were authenticand referred to Jamesthe Just,we would expect his place of origin
(Nazarethor Galilee) to be indicated,as on other ossuariescontainingthe remains of 6migr6swho
settled or died in Jerusalem.As Rahmanipointed out, "InJerusalem's ombs, the deceased's place
152
7/28/2019 Ossuário e sepultamento de Jesus e Tiago
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/ossuario-e-sepultamento-de-jesus-e-tiago 34/35
Magness: TheBurialsofJesus andJames
this possibility,I believe it is unlikelyfor severalreasons.We have no indication
that the members of the early Christian community of Jerusalem abandoned
the principle that rock-cuttombs were used by families. In Palestine, the cus-
tomof community burial in Jewish (or Christian) catacombs is not attested
before the second to thirdcenturies (e.g., at Beth Shearim).152 here is no rea-
son to assume that Jameswas placed in someone else's tomb, since we have no
testimony that this happened (unlike the case of Jesus). In addition, I find it
hardto believe thatthe earlyChristiancommunity of Jerusalem,which lived an
impoverishedand communal lifestyle,would have honored a manwho suppos-
edly believed that "richesare a markof the ungodly"by burying him in an elite
display tomb.153Even if we assume that the early Christians of Jerusalem
buried their members as a community insteadof as individualswith their fami-
lies,154we should probablyenvisage a practice analogousto the Qumranburi-als. Hegesippus's testimony apparently preserves an accurate tradition that
Jameswas buried in a trench gravedug into the ground,not in a rock-cuttomb.
A stele (headstone) set above a graveidentified asJames'swas stillvisible in the
second century C.E.155 s Painterhas noted, Hegesippus'srelatively earlydate
(within a century of James'sdeath) and the fact that he was apparentlyfrom
Palestine (as Eusebius certainlywas) mean thathis statement aboutthe stele is
probably reliable.156The suggestion made by some scholarsthat all or part of
the inscriptionon the "Jamesossuary" s an ancient forgery-added by a pious
Christian n the fourthto fifth centuries-is anachronistic,since the custom of
of origin was noted [on ossuaries] when someone from outside Jerusalem and its environs was
interred in a local tomb" (Catalogue of Jewish Ossuaries, 17). For example, one ossuary from
Nicanor's tomb is inscribed: "[these]bones of [the family]of Nicanorof Alexandriawho made the
gates. Nicanor,the Alexandrian"see Frey, CorpusInscriptionum udaicarum,2:261-62 no. 1256).
For other examples,see Rahmani,CatalogueofJewish Ossuaries,17;Frey, CorpusInscriptionum
ludaicarum, 2:273 no. 1283, which reads "Judah,son of Judah,of Bethel";273 no. 1284, which
reads"Maria,wife of Alexander,of Capua";276 no. 1285, which reads"Joseph he Galilean"; 14-
15, nos. 1372-74, on which "ofScythopolis"s added afterthe names of the deceased.
152Althoughwe have evidence for a community cemetery with individualburials(but not a
catacomb) datingto this period at Qumran;see Magness,Archaeologyof Qumran,168-75.
153See Painter,JustJames,52.
154As suggested by Witherington,"Storyof James,"105, 170 (althoughon p. 170 he notes
that "Jameswas not likelyburied in a graveyard pecificallyfor Christians.He was buriedwith his
fellow Jews").
155Even if the stele thatHegesippus mentions did not markthe authenticlocation of James's
grave, his testimony indicates that Jerusalem'searly Christiancommunitypreserved the tradition
of the mannerin whichJameshadbeen buried. Jerome'stestimonysuggests that by the fourthcen-
turythe stele was no longer visible; see Painter,Just James, 223; Eisenman,James the BrotherofJesus, 454-55.
156Painter, Just James, 129. Also see Bauckham ("ForWhat Offence Was James Put to
Death?"200, 206), who concludes that Hegesippus's testimony indicates that like Josephus, the
Christian raditionaboutthe stoningof James"hadsome access to historicalfact"(p. 206).
153
7/28/2019 Ossuário e sepultamento de Jesus e Tiago
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/ossuario-e-sepultamento-de-jesus-e-tiago 35/35
154 Journalof Biblical Literature
ossilegium had disappearedfrom Jerusalem long before then.157Contempo-
raryChristianswould not have been familiar with the custom of ossilegium.
Those who encountered ossuariesin earliertombswould havehadno reasonto
associatethese objectswith the first centuryC.E.or with James.158
The evidence thatJameswas buried in a trench gravedug into the ground
and not in a rock-cut tomb renders the controversy over the "Jamesossuary"
moot. Even if the inscriptionis authentic, it would not refer to Jamesthe Just,
the brother of Jesus.159By definition, ossuaries and the custom of ossilegium
are associated with rock-cuttombs. The bones of individuals nterredin trench
graveswere not redepositedin ossuaries.Thiswas unnecessarybecause ossuar-
ies held the bones of earlierintermentscollected in rock-cutfamily tombs.160t
would have been a waste of precious time and money (whichthe poorerclasses
lacked) to dig up an old trench grave and place the bones in an ossuary.161Instead, new trench graveswere dug as the need arose.
To conclude, the controversy surroundingthe "Jamesossuary"reflects a
fundamentalandwidespreadmisconception aboutthe functionand socialcon-
text of ossilegium in late Second Temple period Judaism.There should be no
controversy.Even if the inscription is authentic and is not a modern forgery,
this ossuarydid not containthe bones of Jamesthe Just, the brotherof Jesus.
157See Paul V. M. Flesher, "The Story Thus Far ... : A Review Essay of The Brother ofJesus:
The Dramatic Story & Meaning of the First ArchaeologicalLink to Jesus & His Family, HershelShanksand Ben Witherington III, HarperSanFrancisco,New York,2003,"PolishJournalof Bibli-
cal Research2.2(4) (2003):64.
15sBy the fourth andfifth centuries, the figureof James had been marginalized n the West-
ern church;see Painter,JustJames, 178, 220, 271, 274. In contrast,in GnosticChristianityJames
enjoyed a prominent position (ibid., 167). For the Nag Hammaditexts, see James M. Robinson,
ed., The Nag HammadiLibrary, RevisedEdition (San Francisco:Harper& Row, 1988). For the
Byzantine Christianreuse of earlier tombs in Jerusalem,see Gideon Avni, "ChristianSecondary
Use of JewishBurialCaves in Jerusalem n the Lightof New Excavationsat the AceldamaTombs,"
in Early Christianity in Context: Monuments and Documents (ed. F. Manns and E. Alliata;
Jerusalem:StudiumBiblicumFranciscanum, 1993), 265-76.
159 n other words, if the inscriptionis authentic (ancient), it must refer to one of the other
twenty or so first-centuryC.E.Jews in Jerusalemwho could have had this combinationof names;
see Lemaire,"BurialBoxof Jamesthe Brotherof Jesus,"33.
160Ossuaries were frequentlyplaced inside loculi, sometimes alongsideprimaryburials.For
examples, see Vitto, "BurialCaves from the Second Temple Period in Jerusalem," 68-71, figs.
3-11. For a rock-cuttombwith aburialchambercontaining oculi and a second roomthatwasused
as a repositoryfor ossuaries,see ibid., 114.
161A possible exception to this scenario is suggested by m. Sanh. 6:5-6:6, which prescribes
special burialgroundsfor those executed for transgressingJewishlaw and allowstheir bones to be
collected and reburiedin familytombs after the flesh had decayed. Sincewe haveno evidence that
the Sanhedrinpaid for and maintainedrock-cuttombs for executed felons, the deceased presum-ably were inhumed in individual graves dug into the ground. Therefore, this passage probably
refers to cases where the deceased belonged to wealthy familieswith rock-cuttombs who dug up
the remains after the flesh had decayed.