AROTTNITI-fEWORLD
AGordianKnot:TheEthnicRelationsoftheSouthSlays
ItislikelythattheviolentwarnowragingbetweenthesouthSlavicpeopleswillbeincludedamongthemosttragicofthetwentiethcentury.Therootsoftheanimosityextendfarintothepast.Whileasolutiontotoday’shorrorswillhavetoaddressthecomplicatedinteractionsofhistory,theparticipantsthemselvesmuststepoutsidetheirattachmenttothepastandattacktheproblemfromnewperspectives.
OldWine,NewBottles*OfChristianityandEmpire:theEarlyHistoryoftheSouthSlays*UnderAustriaandtheOttomans:Conquest,Migrations,ConversiontoIslam*The19thCentury:IntellectualsDebateNationality*ComingTogether,BreakingApart:Yugosiavism,GreaterSerbdom,CroatianSeparatism*TheSiovenesandMacedonians*TheFirstYugoslaviaIsBorn,1918*CircusDemocracyandaPoliceState:YugoslaviaDuringtheInterwarPeriod*WorldWarII:YugoslaviaShattered,GenocideandResistance*TitoTriestoSolvetheNationalQuestion*TitoStepsIn*TheSuccession:FromTito’sDeathtoToday.Books,GitanesandCDs
ByNicholasBreyfogle
OldWine,NewBottlesWelivedinpeacefor50years.Wewereneighbors,friends-Yugoslavians.Igrewupneverhearingethnichatredorplansforwar.IlovedsummersinSarajevo,wheneveryonewouldwalkalongthemainstreetintheevening,stoppingatcafésfilledwithfriendsandhappylaughter.Myfriendswerenormalteenagers.Wewantedtohavefun,gotomoviesandpartiesandshop.Wedidn’tchoosefriendsbasedonwhetherwewereSerbs,CroatsorMuslims.Newsweek,March8,1993
SowroteNaidaZecevic,aneighteenyearoldBosnian,nowafirstyearstudentattendingcollegeintheUSAandadefacto
refugee,exiledbythecourseofeventsfromherfamilyinSarajevo.HerdescriptionfitswellwithpastimagesofYugoslaviaasatouristdestinationrepletewithstartlingmountains,lushcoastalresorts,andawarm,invitingpopulationwhoextendedhospitalityinoldEuropeanstyle.Yet,theyarestrangewordstobereadingthesedays.Hardlyadaygoesbywithoutsome’furtherunfoldingofthewarsthatragebetweenthepeopleofYugoslavia’ssuccessorstates.ThesewarsnowaccountforthemostterriblefightingEuropehasseensincetheendoftheSecondWorldWar-some50,000to150,000dead,anywherebetweentwoandthreemilliondisplacedpersons,institutionalizedpoliciesofrape,andthehabitualassortmentoftorture,slaughter,imprisonment,deprivation,andstarvation.Itisawarwithoutboundariesinwhichthelinebetweencivilianandsoldier,inthetrueBalkantraditionofbrigandageandguerillawarfare,issoblurredandbesmirchedthatitalltoooftendisappears.
TheethnicrelationsofthesouthSlaysarelikethemythicalGordianknot.Forhundredsofyearstheyhavestruggledtountangletheintertwiningchords,proposingdifferentsolutionsatvarioustimes.Recently,however,thesolutionofchoicehasbecome,notforthefirsttimeintheirhistory,theforcibleseparationoftheknotbyviolentlyhackingthebondsthattie,splitting
chordsandsprayingropedust.Throughouttheirtangledhistory,thesouthSlavicpeople
whocametomakeupwhatthetwentiethcenturyhasknownasYugoslaviahavestruggledwiththeforcesofhistory.Theirmemoriesreachbacktoanalmostinconceivabledegree,toEmpiresandreligiousconversionathousandyearsago.Theyrelivetheirhistoryintheconflictsoftoday,instories,politicalspeeches,andradioandtelevision.Eachnewstepisjustifiedbyapaststep,eachclaimbyapastclaim,andeachvictimizationbyapastvictimization.Historyhasbroughtthemtogetherbutithasalsotornthemapart-sometimeswithviolence,sometimeswithwords.
Today,thesouthSlayscontinuetostrugglewiththeirpast-withreligions,withethnicity,withmedievalempires,withthescarsandchangesmadebytheOttomanandHapsburgEmpires,withdiaspora,withtheimpactofwesternnotionsofnationalism,withtheviolentbreakupofthoseEmpires,withthehungry"GreatPowers"whostoodattheirdoorstogobbleupthescraps,withdifferentconceptionsoftheunityofYugoslavia,andwiththeapproximatelyeightyyearsthattheylivedtogetherunderoneroof,oftensquabblinglikethemembersofafamily.Itwasafamily,butperhapsonlyoneofconvenience-neverthebest,onlythebetter,solution.Whentheexternalthreatofconquestdisappearedandtheeconomydisintegratedinthelate1980s,thefamilybegantobreakup-eachmembernowstrivingtotakewiththemasmanyofthefamilypossessions,and,infact,asmanyoftheotherfamilymembers,aspossible.
Aftercenturies,thelongstandingquestionsstillremaintobeanswered.WhoshallcontrolthelandsofBosniaandHercegovma?WillitbetheCroatsortheSerbswholeadthesouthSlays?Howarenationalboundariesdefined-byethnicityorhistoricprecedent,byreligionorbylanguage?WhoarethesouthSlays,onegroupormany?WhoaretheBosnians?AretheyallSerbsorallCroats?Willitbeafederalorcentralpoliticalstructure?Whowilldecide?
Withallthishistory,thesouthSlaysarecaughtinaparadox.Ononehand,lastingsolutionstothestrugglewillinevitably
ORIGINSMAY1993
havetocometotermswiththecauses-causeswhoseoriginsliedeeplyentrenchedinthepast.Ontheotherhand,today’sparticipantsmustescapethatverysamehistory-mustbreakthebondsthatcondemnthemtorelivethepast-sothattheymayaddressthecontemporarysituationwithclearandrationalminds.
OfChristianityandEmpire:TheEarlyHistoryoftheSouthSlaysTheSlavicpeopleswhonowinhabitthemajorityoftheBalkanpeninsulamigratedtotheirnewhomelandduringthe6thand7thcenturiesandsoonthereafterconvertedtoChristianity.Thoseinthewest-theSlaysofmoderndayCroatia,Slovenia-wereconvertedbyGermanspeakingRomanCatholics,thoseintheeast-‘Serbia,Montenegro,Macedonia-byEasternOrthodoxChristians.WiththeschismthattoretheRomanandEasternchurchesapartin1054,thesouthSlayswerepermanentlyseparatedonefromtheother.BosniaandHercegovina,situatedonthedividinglinebetweentheRomanCatholicandtheEasternOrthodox,wereconvertedbybothandwerealreadyaboneofcontentionbetweenthetwosides.
DuringMedievalhistory,thesouthSlavlandsdevelopedtwoimportantempires-onecenteredonCroatia,theotheronSerbia.Eachempireexpandedtocontrollandsthattodayfallunderthejurisdictionofothernationalities.TheCroatiankingdom,whichincludedpartsofwhatistodayBosnia,beganin924andlastedforclosetotwohundredyears.TheSerbianpeoplesdevelopedandmaintainedthestrongestofthesouthSlavmedievalkingdoms,unitingthepeoplesofMontenegro,Hercegovina,andSerbia.ThekingdomreacheditsapexduringthereignofStepanDusan1331-1355whoexpandedtheborderstoincludeallofmodemAlbania,MacedoniawhereDusanlocatedhiscapitalcity,Skopje,partsofBosnia,aswellasagoodportionofGreece.In1389,theSerbarmywasdefeatedbytheTurksatKosovoPolje-abattlethathastakenonamysticalimportancefortheSerbianpeopleandwhichliesattheheartoftheSerbiandeterminationtoholdKosovo.
UnderAustriaandtheOttomans14thto19thCenturies:Conquest-MigratIons--ConversIontoIslamToday,pocketsofethnicSerbsarefoundspreadthroughoutformerYugoslavlands-inCroatia,inBosniaaiidHercegovina,inKosovo,inVojvodina.ThisdiasporaoriginatedwiththemassmigrationswestwardthatfollowedinthewakeoftheOttomanTurkishMuslimsinvasions.Themasstransfercontinuedinfitsandstartsoverthecourseofthefollowingcenturies.ItbroughtCroatandSerbtogethertolivesidebysideand,overgenerations,theybegantodevelopsimilarcustoms,traditions,andlanguage.
OttomanruleenhancedthepoweroftheSerbianOrthodoxChurchandreligiousleaderstookonnewroles.TheOrthodoxChurchquicklybecamethevesselinwhichSerbiantraditionandnationalconsciousnesswasfosteredandtransportedthroughtheages.Moreover,theOrthodoxchurchactedtobindOttomanSerbswiththeotherSerbsspreadthroughouttheHapsburgEmpire.
OttomanruleservedtodistanceitssubjectsfromthedevelopmentsintheWest.Thebureaucratic,administrative,feudalstructureofOttomanruleremainedvirtuallyunalteredbycapitalismandthedevelopmentofnewclasses.Theconsequencehasbeenapermanenteconomiclagonthepartoftheeasternsouth
Slays.ThefinalimportantresultoftheOttomanconquestwasthe
conversionofasignificantpartofthepopulationtoIslam.ThegreatestincidenceofvoluntaryconversiontookplaceinBosniaandHercegovina.ManyBosniansandHercegovinianshadcometoadheretothebreakawayBogomilChristiansect.TheywelcomedthecomingoftheMuslims,onlytoohappytoescapethepersecutionoftheirChristianbrothers.Tothisday,BosnianMuslimsareresentedbytheothersouthSlaysasTurkishcollaboratorsandtraitors.
ThoseYugoslavswhofellunderHapsburgcontrol-Slovenes,Croats,Serbs-underwentaverydifferentseriesofchangesanddevelopmentsthantheircousinsunderOttomandominion-changesthathavelefttheirmarktothepresent.TheHapsburgSlayswereexposedtoGermancultureandtheforcesofevolvingcapitalism.Administratively,theHapsburgSlaysmaintainedtraditionalgoverningstructuresthroughtheinstitutionofthesabor-agoverningassembly-andtheban-agovernor.UnliketheOttomanSlavrelianceonthechurch,theCroatsandSlovenesreliedonthesepoliticalstructuresasnationalrallyingpointsandfortheupholdingoftradition.
TheNIneteenthCentury:IntellectualsDebateNationality
Duringthebeginningofthenineteenthcentury,theconceptsofnationalityandnationthathaddevelopedfromeighteenthcenturywesternEuropeanromanticismweretakenupandappliedbysouthSlavicintellectuals.Language,morethanreligion,custom,orevenethnicitywasconsideredtobetheallimportantfoundationofnationality.
InSerbia,VukKaradzicstandardizedtheSerbianlanguagearoundthe"stokavian"vernaculardialect.ThisacthadasignificanteffectonSerbian-Croatianrelations.ThemajorityoftheCroatsalsospokeinthestokaviandialect-apotentiallyunifying
LjutJijana,_._‘Zagreb
CROATIA
K’jinaRgio
POLITICALMAPOFFORMERYUGOSLAVIA-VojvodinaandKosovowereautonomousregionswithinSerbia,theothercountrieswerefullrepublics.[Electromap,Inc.]
MAYfl3ORIGINS.3
forceandbasisforanationstate.However,thelinguisticissuealsoservedtodividetheCroatsfromtheSerbs.Karadzicarguedinanarticle"SerbsAllandEverywhere"thatallpeoplewhospokestokavianwereinfactSerbs-aninterpretationthatdeniedtheexistenceofCroatswhospokeinthatdialect.TheargumentquicklyledtotheinterpretationthatalllandsinwhichthepopulationspokestokavianshouldbelongtoSerbia.ManyCroatsarguedinasimilarfashion,everyonewasCroatian.
TheselinguisticdebatestookplaceinthebackdropofapanYugoslavideologythatdevelopedinCroatiaatthesametime-Illyrianism,namedfortheRomanprovinceofIllyriathatcoveredthelandonwhichthesouthSlavstateslaterdeveloped.AdherentstotheIllyrianviewassertedthatallBalkanSlaysweredescendentsofthesametribecalledthe"Illyrians"andwereethnicallyunited.DistinctionsbetweentheIllyrianpeopleexistedbecauseoftheyearsofforeignrule.TheIllyrianscouldandshoulduniteinthefuture.
ComingTogether,BreakingApartYugoslavlsm-GreaterSerbdom-CroatlanSeparatismFromthel850s,movementtowardssouthSlavunityaccelerated.Nevertheless,"Yugoslavism"alwaystookabackseattothestrongerandmorequicklydevelopingsenseofindividualnationalidentities.In1866-67,secretmeetingstookplacebetweentherepresentativesoftheCroatianassemblyandtheSerbianforeignministry.Ageneralagreementwasreachedforthe"formationofaYugoslavstateindependentofAustriaandTurkey."However,almostimmediatelyitbecameclearthatdisagreementsexisted
4.ORIGINS.MAY1993
onmostofthespecificproposalsforunification.AttheheartofthedisagreementlaytwoquestionswhichhavecontinuedtothepresentdaytoplaguesouthSlavleaders-WhowouldassumethemantleofleadershipintheunificationoftheYugoslavs?and,related,butequallyasimportant,HowwouldthelandsthatmadeuptheterritoriesofBosniaandHercegovinabedisposedofwithinanyfutureYugoslavnation?
SerbiabecamethefirstsouthSlavstatetogainitsautonomyfromtheOttomansorAustrianswiththeestablishmentofanindependentmonarchyin1878.Theroadtofreedomhadbegunasearlyas1804andfollowedatorturedpathofpeasantrebellionsandexternalmeddlingthatleftmanydeadandthefinalSerbianstatefrustratedbytheinterferenceoftheGreatPowers.
WithintheCroatianpoliticalspectrum,threepartiesemergedduringthemid-I800s,eachwithaslightlydifferentpolicyontheissueofnationality.TheUnionistpartybelievedthatCroatia’sbestinterestslayinmaintaininghistorictieswithHungaryandwasanti-Serb,anti-Orthodox,andanti-Yugoslav.TheNationalPartyespousedtheIllyrianidea,believinginthepan-SlavicvisionbutbasedaroundaCroatiannucleus.ThePartyof[CroatState]RightledbyAnteStarcevicstoodforanindependentCroatia.Starcevicarguedthat"theentirepopulationbetweenMacedoniaand[German-speakingAustrianareas],betweentheDanubeandtheAdriaticSea,hasonlyonenationality,onehomeland,oneCroatianbeing."
Twoeventsduringthe1870sservedtorapidlydistancethesouthSlavgroupsfromoneanother.First,aneducationallawwaspassedin1874inCroatiawhosemissionwastosecularizeeducation,shiftingcontrolfromthechurchestothesaborand,thereby,tofosterasenseof"Croatness"amongallSlavicpeo
plesinCroatia.TheOrthodoxSerbianpopulationunderthe
Monarchyresistedthislegalactionanddemandedthattheybeexemptedfromthelaw.ThatthelawwaspassedrankledSer
biancitizens.ThattheOrthodoxcalledforanexemption,stifllulatedsuspicionsamongnationalistCroatleaders.
Second,theBalkansfoundthemselvesincrisisfrom1875
78whichbeganwithanuprisingintheOttomanprovincesof
BosniaandHercegovina.AttheinternationalCongressof
Berlin,thelatterwereplacedundertheoccupationandadministrationoftheHapsburgmonarchy.SerbsinbothSerbiaand
AustriaobjectedastheyconsideredthelandsrightlySerbian.
Croatresponsevaried.Somecensuredtheact,consideringthe
landsCroatlands.OthersembracedthefreeingofsouthSlays
fromOttomancontrolandsawinAustrianoccupationthe
promiseofafutureamalgamationofCroatiawithBosniaand
HercegovinaundertheAustrianMonarchy.-
_______
TheantagonismthatgrewupduringtheI870s,increased
significantlyasthetwentiethcenturyapproached.InSerbia,
extremeformsofnationalzealwereconsciouslyfostered
throughthepress,churchandschools.ontheextremeofSer
bianchauvinismwasanarticlewrittenbyNikolaStojanovicIfl
1902called"SerbsandCroats"inwhichhearguedthatthe
Croats"didnothavetheirownlanguage,norcommoncustoms,
norastrongcommonidentity,nor,whatisimpOItttlt,conscious
nessofbelongingtooneanother,asaresulttheycannotbea
separatenationality."Hecontinuedbystressingthattheconflict
betweenSerbsandCroatswouldcontinue"untileitherweoryou
areeliminated.Onesidemustsurrender."Atthesametime,CroatiannationalismwasfednotonlybY
ongoingconfrontationswiththeSerbsbutalsobytheruleofNineteenthcenturyMuslimBosnianwarrior-theyneedhishelpnow.[MetroTorontoReferenceLibrary]
KarolyKhuen-Hedervay,theHungariangovernorofCroatia.Hegovernedbytheprincipleofdivideandrule,panderingtothedesiresoftheSerbianminorityonmattersreligious,economic,andeducationalinreturnfortheirsupportinthesabor.TheCroatianPartyoftheRight,movedevenfarthertotheextremeintheirchauvinismandunderanewleader,JosipFrank,turnedtoviolenceaswellasharshrhetoric.In1896,HapsburgSerbswereconfrontedbyCroatnationalistswithdemonstrationsandflagburningsandin1902,followingthepublicationof"SerbsandCroats,"CroatstooktothestreetsbeatingandharassingSerbsanddestroyingtheirproperty.
In1905,fiveSerbianandCroatianpartieswithintheHapsburgMonarchycametogethertoformtheCroatian-SerbianCoalition.Thepartybelievedintheexistenceofonenationality-Yugoslav-withthreenames-Serb,Croat,andSlovene.JustastheCatholicandProtestantGermanscouldmakeuppartsofthesameGermanysotoocouldCatholicandOrthodoxsouthSlays.Thepartywonatleastapluralityineachofthesucceedingpre-warfreeelections,indicatingsupportfortheir"Yugoslav"ideas.However,eventhispartydidnotcompletelyagreeastothefutureofaYugoslavstate.WhereasavocalportionconceivedofaunitarystateconsistingonlyofHapsburgSlaysanothersectionarguedthatanysouthSlavicstatemustcomprisetheSerbsofSerbiaandMontenegro.Moreover,whileagreementcouldbereachedconcerningoppositiontotheAustroHungariangovernment,theissueofBosniaandHercegovinaremainedaprofoundobstacle.Eachgrouplaidvocalclaimstotheirhistoricandethnicrighttothelands,realizingthatwhoevercontrolledthoselandswouldinessencehavetheupperhandinarbitrationoversouthSlavleadership.-
FollowingtheassassinationoftheArchdukeFranzFerdinand,heirtotheHapsburgthrone,in1914,Croatianultra-nationalists,takingtheircuesfromVienna,organizedandcarriedoutacampaignofpersecutionagainsttheSerbianpopulation,especiallyinBosnia-HercegovinawhereSarajevoturnedintoa"frenzyofhate."SimultaneouslytheyharanguedtheleadersoftheCroatian-SerbiancoalitionintheCroatianAssemblycallingthem"murderersoftheCroatianheirtothethrone."TheysoughtandtookadvantageofanyopportunitytoopenachasmbetweenSerbsandCroats.
NineteenthCenturyNationalism:TheSlovenesandMacedonlans
TheSloveniansgavelittleseriousconsiderationtotheYugoslavideauntilthe1880sand1890s.SlovenenationalconsciousnesswasslowtomakeitswayoutfromunderneaththedominationofGermaninfluences.AssuchtheSlovenesweremoreinterestedinthedevelopmentoftheirownidentitythantheywereinasouthSlavidentity.TheyfrequentlyspurnedSerbianadvancesbecausetheyregardedthemasbothpoliticallyandeconomicallybackward.
Nationalistsentimentswerealsogrowing,althoughatamuchslowerpaceamongtheMacedonianpopulation.In1896theInternalMacedonianRevolutionaryOrganizationIMROwasbornwhichstruggledtothrowoffforeignrule.IntheMacedonianregionthatcameunderSerbiancontrolin1913anareathathadformedpartofDusan’sMedievalempire,thenewSerbmastersbeganapolicyofculturalandlinguisticassimilation.Macedonianswerecompelledthroughthreatsofimprisonment,torture,anddeathtochangetheirnamestoSerbianstyleby
adding"itch"totheending.
TheFirstYugoslaviaIsBorn,1918
In1914,theconceptofYugoslavismnowherereceivedanymorethanreservedsupportfromthesouthSlavpeoples.ThefinalcreationofYugoslaviacamealmostasanaccidentandwasfraughtfromtheoutsetwithinternalweaknessesandcontradictions.
WartimemeetingsbetweenrepresentativesoftheHapsburgSlaysandtheexiledSerbiangovernmentculminatedintheDeclarationofCorfuinJulyof1917whichagreedinprincipletotheunionofallsouthSlays.Despitetheenumerationofspecificcharacteristicsforthenewstate-constitutional,democraticmonarchy,freedomofreligion,useofbothalphabetsCyrillicandLatin-theissueofafederalorcentralstatestructurewasnotresolvedandremainsunsolvedtothisday.
Twothreateningforces-oneinternal,oneexternal-actedasthecatalystsfortheeventualcreationofthefirst"Yugoslav"statein1918calledtheKingdomofSerbs,Croats,andSlovenesruledbytheSerbianKingAleksandar.Ontheonehand,thecollapsingHapsburglandswerecaughtinaspiralofspontaneouspeasantunrestthatresultedfromacombinationofwartimedeprivationsandlongstandinghardship.Ontheotherhand,ItaliantroopswereadvancingintosouthSlaviclands.TheItalianshadbeenpromisedpartsofCroatiaandSloveniabytheAlliesatthesecretLondontreatyof1915inreturnforenteringthewarontheAlliedside.Whenthewarendedtheycametocollectpayment.
CircusDemocracyandaPoliceState:YugoslaviaDuringtheInterwarPeriodFromtheoutset,internalproblemsthreatenedtobreakthenewstateapart.TheKingdomofSerbs,CroatsandSloveneswas
ETHNIC/RELiGIOUSBREAKDOWNOFFORMERYUGOSLAVIA-Areasshadedrepresentregionsinwhichthatreligionand/orethnicityformedthemajority.MacedoniaandSerbiahaveseparatebranchesoftheOrthodoxchurch[Electromap,Inc.]
**Orthodox,*:***Serbia,,andMacedoniant
Catholic
__________
Muslims,Slavic
_______
Muslims,Albanian
MAY1g3.ORIGINS.5
verymuchmorethanthat.ItwasamosaicthatincludedfiveSlavicpeoplesandavarietyofminoritynon-Slays,threereligions,eighthistoricalprovinces,threemainlanguagesaswellasahostofdialects,twoalphabetsandaplethoraofbothbadandgoodfeelingthatwasthelegacyofrelationsduringthepre-waryears.Moreover,thecomponentpeoplesfoundthemselvesatverydifferenteconomicandsocialconditions.TheoldAustroHungarianlandsCroatia,Slovenia,andVojvodinaweremoreindustrialized.Serbia,MontenegroandBosnia-Hercegovina
‘accountedfornomorethan15%ofthenation’sindustry.Serbsviewedthenewstateasacontinuationofthepre-1914
SerbianKingdom,withitsconstitution,army,monarchy,andbureaucracy.TheypromotedSerb-dominatedcentralizationandtheslogans,"threenames-onepeople"and"thethreetribesoftheYugoslavnation."However,overtforcesofdivisioncamefromCroatseparatistmovements,thePartyofRightandtheCroatPeasantPartyledbyStepanRadic.By1930,thePartyoftheRightledbyAntePavelichadturnedintoaultra-nationalistparamilitaryterroristorganizationtheustasa,findingsupportinMussoliniwhowishedtoseeanindependentCroatiathathecouldpullintohissphereofinfluence.RadicandtheCroatPeasantPartycalledforalooseconfederationofrepublicsand
refusedtocompromise.TheytooktheircomplaintstotheinternationalcommunitytryingtofindabackerfortheirvisionofanindependentCroatia.TheseactionssmackedofbetrayalfortheSerbpopulationswhoweredismayedthattheCroatswantedoutsosoon.
ThesouthSlavicexperiencewithdemocracyinthel920swasoneofexasperationandfrustrationinwhichlittlewasachieved.Thenationwideelectionsof1920returnedcandidatesfromawholespectrumofregionallybasedparties.Thedividedparliamentariansvetoed,obstructedandblockedanylegislationthatcamethrough,strugglingtotailorittotheneedsoftheirspecificlocality.Tocapthingsoff,RadicandfourothermembersofparliamentwereshotbyadisaffectedMontenegrinpolitician.KingAleksandartookthisopportunitytoterminatetheunworkableparliamentandinstitutearoyaldictatorship.InOctober,1929thenameofthenationwasofficiallychangedtoYugoslavia.Aleksandardecreedaconstitution,proclaimingacentralizedstate.Inanefforttofosteranationalunity,citizenswerehenceforthtoconsiderthemselves"Yugoslav,"allsignsandsymbolsoftheoldnationalitieswereremovedandallmeasureswerebackedwithforce.
TheassassinationofAleksandarinFrancein1934-apparentlycoordinatedbytheustasaandIMRO-onceagainremappedthenationallandscape.By1939,Yugoslaviawaseffectivelydividedintotwospheresofinfluence,oneCroatian,theotherSerbian.Croatiawasmadeintoanenlargedprovincewithspecialautonomouspowers,aseparatelegislature,andcontroloffiscalandadministrativematters.ThislookedverymuchlikethelooseconfederalsolutionthatRadichadsearchedforduringthe1920s.Thefinalboundariesbetweenthetwospheres,however,wereneverspecificallydefined-theissueofthemixedpopulationsofBosniaandHercegovinaremainedunanswerable.ThisnewagreementalsoentirelydismissedtheequalityoftheothernationalitieswithinYugoslavia,afactthattheyverymuchresented.
WorldWarII:YugoslaviaShattered,GenocideandResistance
OfalltheincidentsinthepastrelationsofthesouthSlays,WorldWarIIandthetreatmentoftheSerbsbytheCroatustasagovernmentismostoftenrehashedandisbyfarthemostincendiary.FollowingtheAxisvictory,Yugoslaviawascutupintotinypiecesanddividedamongstthevictors-Germany,Italy,Hungary,BulgariaandAlbania.InCroatia,afascistgovernment,ledbyPavelic,waserectedonthefoundationoftheustasa.ItwastherealizationofthelongdesiredindependentCroatstateandincludedallofBosniaandHercegovinawithitspopulationofapproximately50%Serbsand30%Muslims.
TheCroatustasagovernmentorganizedsystematicmassacresoftheSerbsonCroatianterritory.TheextentanddegreeofthehorrorisbitterlydebatedtodaybetweenSerbsandCroats.CertainhistorianshaveclaimedthatthedestructionoftheSerbsrankssecondonlytotheJewishHolocaustinbothferocityandvolume.OthersarguethatitwastheGermans,nottheCroats,whocarriedoutthemassacres.SomeputthenumberofSerbianvictimsat200,000,othersat600,000,stillothersatmore.Inonedocumentedcase,1,260SerbianpeasantswerelockedinanOrthodoxchurch,murderedandincinerated.Moreover,theCatholicchurchinstitutedapolicyofforcibleconversionofOrthodoxSerbsthatturnedsome200,000SerbsintoCatholics.
KingAleksandar-firstkingofYugoslavia,1918-1934.[MetroTorontoReferenceLibrary]
6ORIGINS.MAY1993
AsWorldWarIIcametoaclose,civilwarandanarchybrokeoutinYugoslavia.Thetwoprimaryresistanceforces-Mihailovic’sChetniksandTito’sPartisans-foughtboththeconqueringGermans,theCroatustasa,andeachothertheChetnikstendedtoberoyalists,thePartisans,communistsandtheChetniksoftencollaboratedwiththeGermanforcesagainstthePartisans.Localpopulationsarmedthemselvesagainsttheinvaders,againstthedifferentparamilitaryorganizationsandagainsttheirneighbors.Thecivilwarinvolvedeveryoneanditleftdeepscars.
TitoTriestoSolvetheNationalQuestionThedevelopmentofTito’sresponsetothenationalquestioncanbeseeninfourrelativelydistinctstages.Thefirststage,until1948,reflectedaSoviet,Stalinistsolutiontoamulti-ethnicsociety.FivedistinctYugoslavnations,sixrepublics,andtwoautonomousregionswererecognized.Administrativestructureswerecreatedtosupportandbolsterethniccomplexitybutcounterbalancedbyahighlycentralized,single-partydictatorshipwithastrongpolicepresenceandcentrallymanagedeconomy.
FollowingthebreakwiththeSovietUnionin1948,thecentralgovernmenttookitsfirststepstowardsthedecentralizationofboththeeconomyandthepoliticalstructuretolowerlevelsandworkerscooperativestherebybeginningthesecondstage.InYugoslavia,‘local’means‘ethnic’andthedecisiontodivestthecenterofitsmonopolyservedtoinflameregionalanimositiesandenhanceinter-regionalcompetitionastheygrappledforscarceresources.
Thatregionalallegianceswereonceagainontherisewasshownbyresistancetoa"Yugoslavism"campaigndesignedtofosteranoverarchingsupranationalsentimentthatwouldoverridethecentripetalregional-nationalistforces.TheindustriallymoreadvancedCroatiaandSlovenia,believingthattheyhadreceivedtheshortendofthestick,lobbiedforgreaterliberalizationwhileatthesametimecomplainedthatmanyofthestatedepartmentsandespeciallythatofsecurity,weredominatedbyethnicSerbs.Theysawthepolicyof"Yugoslavism"asaveiledattemptonthepartoftheSerbiancentertore-instatethetypeofYugoslaviathathadexistedunderKingAleksandartwenty-fiveyearsbefore.Inthefaceofthisnegativereactionthe"Yugoslavism"programwasscrappedandtheliberalizersfinallyswayedTitototheirside.Thecentralizerswerepurgedin1966andYugoslaviamovedontothethirdstageoftheTitoistnationalsolution.
From1965,themovetowardslocal"self-management"took
onanewandacceleratedspeed.Economicreformswereundertakenthat,forallintentsandpurposes,endedcentraldecisionmakingandplacedcontrolofinvestmentfundsandthebankingsystemintothehandsoflocalethnicauthorities.Thesebodiesquicklycametofunctiononlywithinaspecificregionorlocalityinsmall,inefficientunits.
Atthistime,moreover,theautonomousprovincesofKosovoandVojvodina,technicallywithinthejurisdictionofSerbia,gainedofficialautonomy.InKosovo,nationalistdemonstrationsbythemajorityAlbanianpopulationresultedintheflightoflargepartsoftheethnicSerbswho,filledwithresentment,fearedfortheirfuture.TheSerbsconsideredKosovotobetheheartlandoftheoldMedievalSerbianstateandclaimeditonhistoricalgrounds.TheAlbaniansrightlypointedtotheirdemographicdominance-approximately80%ofthepopulation-andtheirhistoricrootsonthelandwhichdatebacktowellintotheeigh
teenthcentury.AtthesametimeCroatian
leaderswerebecomingevenmoreassertiveintheirdemandsforgreaterautonomyandovertsignsofsovereignty.The1967Croatian"LanguageDeclaration"calledfortherecognitionofCroatianasanequal,officialYugoslavianlanguage-tobetaughtinschoolsandusedinthemedia-andrejectedSerboCroatianasanartificial,Serbinflicted"politicallanguage."
Thisperiodalsowitnessedtherecognitionoftwo"new"nations-theBosnianMuslim1968-69andtheMacedonian1967.ForthefirsttimeinhundredsofyearsBosniaandHercegovinaaswellasMacedoniawereofficiallyconsideredethnicallybasednations,ratherthansimplydistinctculturalcommunities.
TitoStepsIn
Theadministrationofthecountrywascollapsinganddead
lockedinthemazeofmutualvetoesbuiltintotheconstitution.Inthisatmosphereofgrowinginternalethnictension,Titosteppedin1971,threateningmilitaryintervention,tobringthecrisisundercontrol.
Tito’sdrasticmeasuresof1971-72inauguratedthefourthphaseofthenationalsolution.Thefederalsystemremainedinplaceandwasevenbolsteredbythe1974constitutionthatleftonlyquestionsofforeignpolicy,defense,andgeneraleconomicdirectiontothecentralpowers.ThegreatestdifferencebetweenthethirdandfourthphaseswasTitowhoassertedhisgreatpersonalpowertokeepalidontheboilingpot.ThenewleadershadlearnedthatTitowouldnolongertoleratetheovertexpressionofregionalinterests.Moreover,thesesameleadershadcometorealizethatlocalistsentimentcould,ifoutofhand,acttodisruptother,perhapsmoreimportant,componentstotheir
MAY1943.ORIGINS.7
lives,suchastheeconomy.Duringthe1970stheeconomywasontheriseandfewpeoplewishedtodisturbthesuccess.
Despitetherelativequietofthel970s-asignificantriseinthenumberofcitizenswhodescribedthemselvesas"Yugoslav,"ratherthanasamemberofaspecificethnicgroup,appearedtobodewellforYugoslavia’sfuture-theregional-nationalistwaterscontinuedtoboil,shownbyfurtherdemonstrationsandarrestsinKosovointhemid-l970s.WiththedeathofTitoin1980,thesafetycatchesontheliddisappeared.
TheSuccession:’FromTito’sDeathtoToday
ThetwomostimportantfactorsthatkeptYugoslaviafrombreakingapartbefore1980haddisappearedbythesecondhalfofthel980s-Titowasdeadandtheeconomydisintegrated.Foreignpressure,traditionallytheotherimportantforcekeepingYugoslaviatogetherwasincoherentandinternallydisorganized-theColdWarwasoverandtheEuropeanCommunity,indispute.
Inthisenvironment,regionalpoliticalleaders-whoespousedchauvinist,ethnic,populistmessages-combinedwiththepeopletoworkeachotherintoafrenzy.SlobodanMilosevic,whobecameCommunistPartyChiefofSerbiain1986,remainsthemostprominentofthesenationalistleadersbutwascertainlynottheonlyone.Byfosteringstreetdemocracyandmassrallies,Milosevicstartedinmotionaperpetualbacklashbetweentherepublics,mostespeciallybetweenSloyeniaandSerbia.
MiloseviccapitalizedonSerbgrievancesunderthefederalsystem.SerbscomplainedabouttheirlackofinfluenceinfederalYugoslaviawherethesignificanceoftheirlargerpopulationwaslostinasystemthatgaveequalweighttoeachethnicity,andspecificallyofwhattheyperceivedtobetheirrawtreatmentintheeconomicsphere;aboutthedivisionofSerbiaintothreepartsKosovoandVojvodinabytheCroatTitoandhissecondincommandKardelj,aSlovene;andaboutthenationalismandirredentismoftheseparatistAlbaniansinKosovo,whichtheybelievedwasbeingfosteredbytheotherrepublics.
Themulti-partyelectionsof1990broughtnon-Communist,regionallycenteredgovernmentsintopowerinSlovenia,Croatia,BosniaandHercegovina,andMacedonia.Justdaysbeforethefightingbegan,theycontinuedtorehashthelongstandingissuesoffederalversuscentralandthesplittingofYugoslaviaintoitsOttomanandHapsburgcomponents.ButwherewouldthebordersbeandhowwouldBosniaandHercegovinabedealtwith?Fragmentationranamokastwohundredregionallybasedpartiesemerged.AllattemptsatreformbythePrimeMinisterAnteMarkovicwereblockedorunderminedbydifferentethnicparties,reminiscentofthepoliticalstalemateoftheearlyinterwaryears.ThistimetherewasnoTitoorAleksandartorestorestability.
Regionalnationalismgrewlikewildfire.FearofseparatistmovementssoaredamongSerbslivingoutsideofSerbiaandrelationsbetweentherepublicssoured.Thememoriesofpast
[KirkAnderson]
8*ORIGINS.MAY1993
conflictswereblownoutofproportionforpoliticalend.SerbspointedtothehorrorsoftheindependentCroatianstateduringWorldWarIIand,inahighlypublicizedincident,CroatleadersrenamedasquareinZagrebafterAnteStarcevic,the19thcenturyCroatianultra-nationalistwhounfavorablycomparedSerbswithbarnyardanimals.
FearofanindependentCroatiangovernmentwasespeciallyfierceintheKrajinaregionwheretheSerbsrepresentedthemajorityofthepopulation.Miloseviccametothesupportofthe"foreign"Serbsdemandingrightsandprotectionfortheircommunities.Hedidnotopposeself-determinationonthepartoftheotherrepublicsbutaskedthatthesamecourtesybeextendedtothemajoritySerbpopulationswithintheirboundaries.Hequietlyencouragedthe"foreign"Serbstodemandit-thisdespitehisblatantdenialofself-determinationoftheAlbanianpopulationinKosovo.
IntheKrajina,localSerbs,notalwaysfollowingBelgrade’slead,tookmattersandtheinitiativeintotheirownhands.Theyarmedthemselves,blockedroads,andtookoverlocalfacilities.Aspessimismgrew,SloveniaandCroatiapreparedforagunfight.TheYugoslavPeople’sArmyJNAbelievedintheimportanceofmaintainingYugoslaviaintactwithoutwhichtheywouldhavenojobandoftencametosidewiththeSerbiangovernmentandlocalSerbmilitias.InJuneof1991,followingtheSerbsponsoredblockingoftherotationofthepresidency,SloveniaandCroatiadeclaredindependence.Sabersrattled,leadersmisjudged,andboththepeopleandtheirstatesacceleratedarming.Theviolentconflicthadbegun.
Books,Gitanes,andCDs
Overthepasttwoyears,thefightinghasmovedfromSloveniatoCroatiatoBosniaandHercegovina.WhileSloveniaisnowrelativelyquiet,battlescontinuetorageinCroatiabetweentheKrajinaSerbsandthenewCroatgovernment.InBosniaandHercegovina,SerbsandCroats-astheyhaveforhundredsofyears-arefightingtheSlavicMuslimstocarveoutcontrolofaregionthattheybothclaim.OvertviolencehasyettosweepVojvodina,KosovoorMacedonia.However,thesethreeregionsmayprovetobethemosttragic.Eachareaincludesalargenon-SlavicpopulationHungarian,Albanian,andBulgarianandTurkishrespectivelyandconflictcouldconceivablydragneigh-
boringnationsintotheYugoslavmaelstrom.GeorgeSantayanawarnedthatthosewhodonotremember
theirpastaredestinedtorepeatit.ButthesouthSlaysremembertheirhistoryalltoowellandneverthelessseemcondemnedtoreliveit.WhiletheforcesofhistoryhaveledtothebreakupofYugoslaviaandserveasthewellspringoftheviolence,ifthesouthSlaysaretocometoaresolutionoftheproblemoutsideofmutualannihilation,theymustforgettheirpastandconcentrateonlyonsalvagingthepresent-aformidabletaskinYugoslavia.
Asalways,however,itshouldberememberedthatthisisawarfoughtbypeople,nottheforcesofhistory.Thereasonsforfightingarenotalwaysasclearashistorymightmakethemappear.InareportpublishedinHarper’sMagazineofMarch,1993,"BalkanDeathTrip-ScenesFromaFutileWar,"TonyHorwitzrelaysthepersonalmotivationsofaSerbnamedZjelkofightingforhometownSarajevo.Itisapainfulreminderthatwarisoftenaboutnothingatall,thatpeoplecontinuetofightbecausetheywantsimplyforthefightingtoend.
Idon’tfightfornationalism-Isleepwithgirlsofallnations.Idon’tfightforreligion-Godisnoplace.IfightbecauseIwanttogobackdownthere[thedowntownhouseheleftmonthsearlierinfearofattacksonSerbs]withmybooksandmyCDplayerandmyGitanecigarettes.
Slovenianpeasantinmorepeacefultimes.[JosephineKing]
MAY13.ORIGINS.9
